history

1. What were Watson’s views on mental constructs (e.g., mind, consciousness, free will, etc.)?Why?

• Mental concepts have no value for a science of psychology. 

• Introspective method of consciousness or the mind is not objective so not accepted

• Watson believes that everything we do is the direct result of our past experiences and can be predicted. Therefore the is no room for freewill

Was Watson a nativist or an empiricist? Explain.

Empiricist- knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation of the world

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."

Be familiar with Watson’s views on emotion.

• Emotions are nothing more than physiological responses to specific stimuli

• Stimulus produces internal physical changes along with appropriate learned responses

• Denies any conscious perception of the emotion

• Emotion is a form of implicit behavior in which internal reactions are evident in physical manifestations

1. What was Watson’s distinction between responses and acts? What’s the difference between explicit and implicit responses?

Acts:

Watson called more complex responses “acts”

For example( Eating, writing, dancing, or building a house)

Involves the organisms movement in spocace that accomplishes some goal that affects one environment.

Can be reduced to lower motor or glandular responses

Responses:

Responses are lower level motor responses

Can be either explicit or implicit

Implicit:

Occur inside the body such as glandular secretions and nerve impulses

Explicit:

Overt and directly observable

What was the purpose of the Little Albert experiment?

To prove fear can be conditioned to a stimulus that you were not previously afraid of

concluded that all adult fears, aversions, and anxieties are conditioned in earlychildhood

What did Watson do after losing his academic position? Did he abandon behaviorism?

He began as an applied psychologist in the field of advertising

But he continued to publicly publish information on behaviorism

To Watson, what were the acceptable methods of behaviorism?

Must be an objective study of behavior

Observation with and without the use of instruments

Testing methods

The verbal report method

Opposed introspection however accepted verbal reports because speech reactions are objectively obervable

The conditioned reflex method

Stimulus substitution

A response is conditioned when it becomes attached or connected to a stimulus other than the one its originally aroused to

They both founded a school of thought in psychology

With respect to their role in the history of psychology, how was Watson similar to Wundt?

They both founded a field of thought in psychology

In what ways was Watson’s behaviorism similar to functionalism?

Watson's behaviorism shared similarities with functionalism in that both focused on the study of behavior in relation to its function or purpose. While functionalists examined how mental processes served adaptive functions in individuals' lives, behaviorists like Watson emphasized the observable behaviors and how they were influenced by environmental stimuli and reinforcement. Both schools of thought aimed to understand behavior within its context and how it helped individuals adapt to their environment.

What were some of the criticisms of Watson’s behaviorism raised by William McDougal?

Data of consciousness is indispensable

Psychologists need to use introspection to understand the meaning of a subjects response

Human behavior is not fully determined because that would leave no room for freewill or choice, thus there would be no motivation for improvement

Accused watson of being inconsistent by accepting verbal report method but rejecting instrospection

Be familiar with the work of Karl Lashley, Donald Hebb and Brenda Milner on memory. How does it relate to Watson’s behaviorism?

Karl Lashley, Donald Hebb, and Brenda Milner's research on memory aligns with Watson's behaviorism, emphasizing the observable aspects of behavior influenced by environmental stimuli. Their work sheds light on how memory processes can be studied through behaviors, supporting the behaviorist approach to understanding learning and memory.

operationism

The doctrine that a physical conceot can be defined in precise terms related to the set of operations or procedures by which it is determined

Tolmans learning theory

Tolman's learning theory emphasizes cognitive processes in behavior. He proposed that organisms learn purposefully and form mental maps of their environment. Tolman's experiments with rats demonstrated latent learning, where knowledge is acquired without immediate reinforcement. This challenged traditional behaviorist views and highlighted the role of cognition in learning.

Operant conditioning

A learning situation that involves behavior emmited by an orgasm rather than elicited by a detectable stimulus

Know each of the schools of neobehaviorism, including their founders, as well as their major

similarities and differences.

Hullian Behaviorism:

Founder: Clark L. Hull

Key Similarities:

Emphasis on observable behavior and its environmental determinants.

Utilization of experimental methods to study behavior.

Focus on establishing quantitative laws governing behavior.

Key Differences:

Introduced the concept of habit strength and drive reduction to explain behavior.

Incorporated principles of intervening variables and mathematical formulations into behaviorism.

Tolmanian Behaviorism:

Founder: Edward C. Tolman

Key Similarities:

Acknowledgment of cognitive processes in shaping behavior.

Emphasis on purposeful behavior and goal-directed actions.

Adoption of experimental methods to study behavior.

Key Differences:

Introduced concepts such as cognitive maps and latent learning to explain behavior.

Rejected the notion of behavior solely driven by external stimuli, emphasizing the role of internal mental representations.

Skinnerian Behaviorism (Radical Behaviorism):

Founder: B.F. Skinner

Key Similarities:

Focus on observable behavior and its environmental determinants.

Utilization of experimental methods, particularly operant conditioning techniques.

Emphasis on the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior.

Key Differences:

Rejects the role of internal mental states in behavior, focusing solely on observable responses.

Proposes the concept of operant conditioning, where behavior is modified by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment.

Was Skinner’s radical behaviorism more similar to the other schools of neobehaviorism, or to

Watson’s behaviorism? Why?

Skinner's radical behaviorism shares more similarities with Watson's behaviorism than with the other schools of neobehaviorism. Here's why

• Both Watson and Skinner emphasized the importance of observable stimuli and responses in behavior.

• Both Watson and Skinner rejected mentalistic explanations of behavior, such as thoughts, feelings, and subjective experiences.

• Both Watson and Skinner believed that behavior is determined by environmental factors, rather than internal states or predispositions.

Whose work was Skinner most influenced by?

Watson and pavlov

According to Skinner, can mental processes be used as explanations of behavior? Why or why not?

No, he said “Not a denial of mental events, but a refusal to resort to them as explanatory entities”

Be familiar with each of Skinner’s contributions to psychology discussed in class.

Operant Conditioning:

Skinner's most significant contribution is the development of the theory of operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it.

Skinner Box:

Skinner designed the Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, to study animal behavior in controlled environments.

The Skinner box allowed researchers to manipulate environmental variables, such as reinforcement schedules, to study the effects on behavior.

This experimental setup was instrumental in Skinner's research on operant conditioning and behavioral principles.

Schedules of Reinforcement:

Skinner conducted extensive research on schedules of reinforcement, which govern how and when reinforcements are delivered following a behavior.

. According to Tolman, what are intervening variables? Do they cause behavior?

Unobserved are inferred factors within the organism that are the actual determinants of behavior

They are the actual determinants of behavior

. What ideas is Tolman best known for?

Learning theory

concept of intervening variables

What were Hull’s views of psychology? How did his approach reflect these views?

He saw the human nature in mechanistic terms and regarded human behavior as automatic like machines

His approach reflected these views by emphasizing rigorous experimentation, precise measurement, and the development of mathematical models to understand and predict behavior in a quantitative way

Be familiar with Hull’s concept of drive. How is drive related to reinforcement?

Drive is a stimulus arising from a state of tissue need that arouses or activtes behavior

Strength of the drive can be empirically determined by the length of deprivation or by the intensity, strength, and energy expenditure of the resulting behavior

Primary drives are vital to the organisms survival like food water, air defecation, urination, sleep, sex

Secondary drives relate to situations or envirmonetal stimuli associated with the reduction of primary drives and so may become drives themselves

Law of primary reinforcement: states that when a stimulus- response relationship is followed by a reduction in need, the probability increases that on subsequent occasions the same stimulus will evoke the same response

According to Kuhn, what’s a paradigm shift and what causes it?

paradigm shift, according to Kuhn, is a major change in the fundamental assumptions and practices of a scientific discipline. It happens when anomalies challenge the existing paradigm, leading to a crisis and the emergence of a new framework that better explains observed phenomena.

What were Bandura’s major criticisms of Skinner? How did Bandura’s approach differ?

Bandura's major criticisms of Skinner centered around Skinner's exclusive focus on observable behavior and his neglect of internal mental processes. Bandura argued that human behavior is influenced not only by external stimuli and reinforcement but also by cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and decision-making. Bandura's approach, known as social learning theory or social cognitive theory, emphasized the role of observational learning, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism in shaping behavior.

What’s vicarious reinforcement? How does this differ from earlier views on reinforcement?

Banduras notion that learning can occur by observing the behavior of other people, and the consequences of their behavior, rather than by always experiencing reinforcement personally

This differs from earlier views on reinforcement, such as those proposed by Skinner, which primarily focused on the direct experience of reinforcement or punishment by the individual engaging in the behavior.

. How does Bandura’s approach to behavioral modification differ from that of Skinner?

Bandura's approach to behavioral modification differs from Skinner's by incorporating cognitive processes, observational learning, reciprocal determinism, and self-efficacy into his theory, whereas Skinner's approach focuses solely on observable behavior and environmental contingencies.

According to Bandura, what’s self-efficacy? Why is this concept important for behavioral

modification? Was this a new idea at the time? (Hint: Think William James

Self efficacy is ones sense of self esteem and competence in dealing with lifes problems.

Behavioral modication can be used to enhance self-efficacy

While Bandura's formulation of self-efficacy was innovative, it builds upon earlier ideas, such as William James' concepts of self-esteem and confidence.

What is gestalt psychology?

Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of studying the mind as a whole rather than breaking it down into isolated elements. It focuses on how people perceive and experience the world around them, highlighting patterns, wholes, and organization in perception and cognition. Gestalt psychologists argue that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, and they explore phenomena like perception, problem-solving, and insight.

In what ways was psychoanalysis unique compared to other schools of psychology?

Psychoanalysis differed from other schools of psychology by delving deeply into the unconscious mind, emphasizing early childhood experiences, introducing unique therapeutic techniques, and focusing on sexuality and aggression in human behavior.

What do you think was the most important contribution of psychoanalysis to psychology? Why?

Psychoanalysis emphasized the role of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences in shaping behavior, contributing to the development of psychotherapy and advancing our understanding of human emotions and mental health.

Who proposed that hysteria was due to a traumatic event that was pushed into the unconscious by the patient?

Sigmund Freud proposed that hysteria was due to a traumatic event that was pushed into the unconscious by the patient.

who was iceberg analogy contributed to

frued

How did the theory of evolution influence psychoanalysis?

The theory of evolution influenced psychoanalysis by shaping its understanding of human behavior as adaptive responses to survival needs.

Why did Freud adopt a purely psychological approach to the study and treatment of mental

illness?

Freud adopted a purely psychological approach to the study and treatment of mental illness because he believed that mental disorders were rooted in unconscious conflicts and traumas rather than solely in biological factors. He emphasized the importance of understanding the complexities of the human mind, particularly the unconscious, in order to effectively address mental health issues.

What role did Freud assign to the unconscious with respect to its influence on behavior? How

did his idea of the unconscious differ from that of others?

Freud assigned a central role to the unconscious in shaping behavior, believing that it harbored repressed desires, memories, and emotions that exerted a powerful influence on conscious thoughts and actions. He argued that unconscious conflicts and impulses could lead to psychological symptoms and irrational behaviors.

How did Freud propose the unconscious could be studied?

Free association: Patients were encouraged to express their thoughts, feelings, and memories without censorship or judgment. Through free association, Freud believed that unconscious conflicts and desires could be brought to light.

Dream analysis: Freud considered dreams to be the "royal road to the unconscious." By analyzing the manifest content (the literal elements of the dream) and the latent content (the underlying symbolic meaning), Freud believed that dreams could reveal unconscious wishes, fears, and conflicts.

Psychoanalytic interpretation: Freud developed techniques for interpreting slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), jokes, and other forms of "parapraxes" (faulty acts) to uncover unconscious motives and desires.

How did Freud propose psychoanalysis can be used to treat mental illness? In other words, how

does it address its symptoms?

Freud proposed that psychoanalysis could be used to treat mental illness by uncovering and resolving unconscious conflicts and repressed memories that contribute to symptoms. He believed that many mental illnesses, such as neuroses, were caused by unresolved conflicts originating from childhood experiences and unconscious desires.

What’s repression, and how does it lead to mental illness?

Repression is a defense mechanism where distressing thoughts are pushed out of awareness. Freud believed it could lead to mental illness by causing inner conflict and tension. These unresolved conflicts may manifest as anxiety, depression, or other psychological distress.

What’s the difference between resistance and repression? How does resistance impede

treatment?

Repression involves unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts, while resistance refers to a patient's reluctance to engage fully in therapy. Resistance can impede treatment by hindering self-awareness and exploration of underlying issues.

Be familiar with Freud’s free association technique. What was its advantage compared to the use of hypnosis and post-hypnotic suggestion?

Freud's free association technique involves patients freely expressing their thoughts without censorship. Its advantage over hypnosis and post-hypnotic suggestion lies in its ability to access unconscious material without the need for trance states or external influence. This allows for a more direct exploration of underlying psychological issues and avoids the potential distortion of memories associated with hypnosis.

According to Freud, did it matter whether a traumatic event recalled by a patient was actually real?

No, according to Freud, it did not necessarily matter whether a traumatic event recalled by a patient was objectively real. What mattered more was the subjective experience of the event and its impact on the individual's psyche. Freud believed that even if the specific details of a memory were not accurate, the emotions and reactions associated with it were significant in understanding the patient's psychological state and treating their symptoms

Why did Freud propose most repressed memories were sexual in nature?

Freud believed that most repressed memories were sexual in nature due to his focus on early childhood experiences and the significance he attributed to sexual development in shaping personality. Additionally, societal taboos surrounding sexuality may have influenced Freud's emphasis on sexual repression in his theories.

Did Freud believe that the interpretations (e.g. of dreams, or other expressions of the

unconscious) made by the psychoanalyst have to be accurate? Why or why not?

Freud believed psychoanalysts' interpretations didn't have to be entirely accurate. He saw them more as hypotheses than absolute truths, since the unconscious communicates symbolically and indirectly. So, interpretations could evolve with further analysis and insights during therapy. For Freud, the therapeutic process mattered more than pinpoint accuracy.

In general, what has research designed to test Freud’s psychoanalytic theory found?

Research testing Freud's psychoanalytic theory has produced mixed findings, with some support for concepts like early childhood influences and defense mechanisms, but also contradictions and difficulties replicating key findings. Debates continue over the validity and applicability of psychoanalytic concepts due to challenges in empirical testing

Be familiar with the criticisms of psychoanalysis discussed in class

Criticisms of psychoanalysis include its lack of empirical evidence, reliance on subjective interpretation, focus on sexuality, and unfalsifiability. Additionally, critics argue that Freud's theories are overly deterministic and ignore cultural and individual differences. Psychoanalysis has also been criticized for its lengthy and costly treatment methods and its potential for reinforcing stigma around mental illness.