development and learning (learning edition)

ap psychology unit about development and learning

behavioral perspective

behavioral perspective

examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions with the environment (training a pet, like teaching a dog to fetch a ball with treats and praise to shape behavior)

associative learning

process of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together (a child being who is fearful of dogs, even if they are friendly/calm)

-classical conditioning (association) or operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment)

habituation

occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated/enduring stimulus (phone in office constantly ringing but eventually is drowned out)

-simple breakdown is when someone gets used to something over time and stops reacting to it

classical conditioning

learning method where we associate two stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events and respond accordingly, (Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate at the sound of a bell)

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning (food causing salivation in Pavlov's experiments)

unconditioned response (UR)

the natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (salivation in response to food)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (the bell in Pavlov's experiments)

conditioned response

the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (salivation in response to the bell)

acquisition

the initial learning of an association (connecting the neutral stimulus of the bell ringing to the unconditioned response of salivation when food is presented)

extinction

the process in which the conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (when music is usually played on test day, but is played every day and surprise persons when there is an actual test)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of rest following extinction, indicating that the learned association is not completely forgotten (dog salivating at the ringing of the bell after not responding prior for multiple attempts)

stimulus discrimination

the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learning through the conditioning process (the dogs salivating when it heard the sound of a bell, but not when it heard any other sound)

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process (the dogs salivate in response to another type of sound similar to the bell)

higher-order conditioning

process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli, resulting in those stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response (you get stung by a wasp, and later there are wasps near a trash can and there is a slight fear of the trash can because of the association of wasps)

-layering of associations=high-order conditioning

counterconditioning

changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience (showing pictures of scorpions to someone with a fear while doing breathing techniques)

taste aversion

learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one (eating undercooked burger, getting food poisoning, avoided burgers and that restaurant)

one-trial conditioning

learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things (it only taking one time for the person to avoid burgers because of the food poisoning)

biological preparedness

innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food and danger (eating a wild berry and getting sick, and understanding not to eat it again, thus increasing likelihood of survival)

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences, such as reinforcement/punishment (receiving sticker every time a student submits homework on time)

the law of effect

behaviors followed by favorite outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated (tracking daily food intake and exercise routines and becoming stricter with it after noticing the significant weight loss)

reinforcement

any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future (saying “good job” to a student who preformed well on a test)

primary reinforcers

things we naturally like, such as food or water

secondary reinforcers

things we learn to like because they’re connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like, such as money, trophies, medals, etc

reinforcement discrimination

ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence/absence of reinforcement (providing treats to a dog when it correctly preforms a task)

reinforcement generalization

tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement (being praised for raising hand, and expecting the same praise during similar situations outside of that original context)

positive reinforcement

presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future (giving a high-five immediately when a student answers a question right)

negative reinforcement

removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future (buckling up to remove the unpleasant stimulus—the beeping—to reinforce the idea of wearing a seatbelt)

punishment

any consequence to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future (any student caught using their phone during lessons has to hand it over for the remainder of the day)

positive punishment

adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future (child using device past limit, so parents add extra chores to their list)

negative punishment

removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future (taking away the keys of a teenager’s car after coming in past curfew)

shaping

gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior, leading to the development of a complex behavior/skill (teaching a dog to fetch a ball by increasing locations of treats when touching the ball, picking it up, bringing back to owner)

instinctive drift

animals may go back to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training (killer whales trained to jump through hoops but may exhibit natural behaviors like aggression and attempting to drown the trainer because they believe its another whale0

superstitious behavior

accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes, even when they are not (using a certain pencil leads to better performance on a test)

reinforcement schedules

patterns determining when and how often reinforcement is given for behavior, influencing the rate and persistence of that behavior (giving treats at a fixed interval schedule for training a dog to maintain a steady level of obedience)

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing behavior every time it occurs (if a dog trainer gives the dog a treat every time it successfully completes a command)

partial reinforcement

reinforcing behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding (treats are only given occasionally instead of every time a task is completed by the dog)

fixed interval “FI”

reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a predictable pattern of behavior (student receiving at the end of each semester)

variable interval “VI”

reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a steady but moderate rate of responding (receiving notifications from social media at random times after posting content)

fixed ratio “FR”

reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with short pauses after each reinforcement (getting a free card after 10 hole punches through the fixed ration schedule of punch card systems)

variable ratio “VR”

reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high and steady rate of responding with minimal pauses (not knowing after x amount of time the level is pulled that they will win at a slot machine)

scalloped pattern

fixed interval schedules tend to produce overall response rates that are low and that increase as the time for reinforcement gets closer (making a food available to a mouse who hits a lever after every five minutes)

learned helplessness

belief that one has no control over their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events, leading to feelings of passivity and lack of effort to change the situation (stop putting effort into studying for math because of the constant poor grades)

social learning theory

emphasizes the importance of observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors, as well as the role of cognitive processes in learning from others within social contexts (child repeating explicit language after hearing their parent shout it)

vicarious conditioning

learning by observing the consequences of others’ actions, without directly experiencing those consequences oneself (a child witnessing another child having a dental procedure done and is upset, so the original child develops a fear despite not having a painful dental experience)

insight learning

sudden understanding of a problem/situation that leads to a solution without prior trial and error, often accompanied by a feeling of “aha!” or realization (removing a door from the hinges to fit furniture that previously would not fit)

latent learning

learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or motivation, but is not demonstrated until there is a reason to do so (a child learning cooking skills and then being asked later on to make a meal, does so successfully because of the observed steps)

cognitive maps

mental representatives of spatial relationships or layouts, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their environment (student who attends large university compass memorizes where their friend’s dorms are, the library, etc. and being able to describe in detail how to get there)