Sociological Concepts and Theories

This set of flashcards covers key sociological concepts and theories important for understanding the relationship between individual experiences and broader social contexts.

Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the relationship between personal experiences and larger social forces.

Dualisms

Opposing concepts used to analyze social life, such as Micro (individual interactions) and Macro (large systems).

Social Structure

The organized pattern of social relationships and institutions that together constitute society.

Agency

The capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own choices.

Situation

The specific social context defining the expectations for behavior during an interaction.

Collective Effervescence

A feeling of energy and harmony when people are engaged in a shared purpose or ritual.

Rituals

Formalized behaviors that members of a group regularly engage in.

Anomie

A state of normlessness; a breakdown of social bonds between an individual and the community.

Collective Representations

Symbols or images that have common significance shared by group members.

Social Norms

Rules and expectations guiding the behavior of members in a society.

Breaching Norms

Intentionally violating social norms to expose the underlying rules of interaction.

Socially Constructed

The idea that something is created and sustained through social interaction.

Functionalist Approach

A perspective viewing society as a complex system promoting solidarity and stability.

Conflict Approach

A perspective envisaging society as an arena of inequality generating conflict and change.

Habitus

Deeply ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions shaped by life experiences.

The Protestant Ethic

The belief in hard work and thrift as moral duties contributing to capitalism.

Secularization

The historical decline in the importance of the supernatural and sacred.

Network Graphs

Visual representations of social networks showing actors and their relationships.

Nodes & Ties

Nodes are individuals in a network; ties are the connections between them.

A/Symmetrical Ties

Symmetrical ties are reciprocal relationships; asymmetrical are one-way.

Dyadic / Triadic

Dyadic involves two individuals; triadic involves three individuals.

Structural Holes

Gaps between networks preventing access to each other's information.

Social Capital

Networks of relationships among people enabling society to function effectively.

Economic Capital

Financial resources including money, property, and assets.

Cultural Capital

Non-financial social assets promoting social mobility beyond economic means.

Resources

Goods, material or symbolic, accessible through social ties.

Socialization

The lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms and customs.

Total Institution

A setting where people are isolated from society and manipulated by administration.

Ascribed vs. Achieved Status

Ascribed: involuntary status at birth; Achieved: status based on merit or effort.

Heterogamy vs. Homogamy

Heterogamy: marriage with different social characteristics; Homogamy: marriage with similar characteristics.

Masculinity / Femininity

Attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with boys/men and girls/women.

Embodiment

How social forces and culture are inscribed on the physical body.

Beauty Regime

Institutionalized practices and norms regarding physical appearance.

Code Switching

Adjusting speech and behavior to optimize comfort of others.

Impression Management

Efforts to control perceptions about a person, object, or event.

Deviance

Behavior that violates societal standards or expectations.

Stigma

A mark of disgrace associated with a specific quality or circumstance.

Labeling Theory

The idea that deviance results from how others label an individual.

Collateral Effects

Unintended negative consequences of a policy or action.

Recidivism

The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend.

Surveillance

Monitoring behavior to influence, manage, or direct it.

Panopticon

A prison design enabling self-regulation among prisoners.

Social Reproduction

The process of perpetuating values and norms through socialization.

Functionalist vs. Conflict Approaches to Education

Functionalist prepares individuals; Conflict reinforces inequality.

Racialization

Ascribing racial identities to social relations or practices.

Achievement Gaps

Disparities in academic performance between different student groups.

Opportunity Gaps

Unequal distribution of resources and opportunities.

Social Class

A division of society based on social and economic status.

Concerted Cultivation vs. Natural Growth

CC emphasizes structured activities; NG focuses on unstructured play.

Cultural Matching

Hiring candidates who mirror the cultural traits of managers.

Double Segregation

Segregation by both race and poverty.

Visual, Consumer, and Aesthetic Culture

Using goods and visuals to communicate identity and status.

Embodied Ease

Comfort and confidence felt in a social environment.

Comportment

How a person conducts themselves in a social context.

Distinction

How cultural tastes mark social class.

Bureaucracy

A formal organization characterized by hierarchy and rules.

Division of Labor

Assignment of different tasks to different people in a process.

Alienation

Dissatisfaction from producing goods controlled by others.

Informal Economy

Economic activity not taxed or monitored by the government.

Emotional Labor

Managing feelings to fulfill job requirements.

Feeling Rules

Social norms dictating appropriate emotional responses in situations.

Democratization

Making something accessible to everyone.

Independent Variable

The variable changed in an experiment to test effects.

Dependent Variable

The variable being measured in a study.

Sampling on the Dependent Variable

Selecting cases based on the outcome of interest only.

Unit of Analysis

The entity being analyzed in a research study.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation as a starting point for investigation.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation indicates a relationship; causation implies direct effect.

Spurious Relationship

A false relationship due to a third variable.

Validity

The accuracy of a measurement or conclusion.

Reliability

The consistency of a study or measuring test.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative uses numbers; qualitative uses meanings.