2025 Midterm Review

Accomodation (vision)

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction; excess leads to paralysis, deficiency seen in Alzheimer's patients

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

activation synthesis theory

theory that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain and that dreams result from the brain's attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep.

afferent neurons

Nerve cells that carry impulses towards the central nervous system; sensory neurons

agonist

a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

alcohol

Depressant; inhibits cognitive functioning and voluntary movement

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

antagonist

a chemical that blocks neurotransmitter activity

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance or capacity to learn

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes; focuses on observable actions rather than internal mental events

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptor cells are located there

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration/perception of sensory information

broca's area

controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses; transduction organ of audition

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

conditioned stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that agrees with one's preconceptions

confounding variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

convergent thinking

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one

correlational research

research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

debriefing

a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

depressants

drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking or brain-storming)

dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system; excess seen in schizophrenia and deficiency seen in Parkinsons

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

ecstasy

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen; produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface; waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

efferent neurons

neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body; motor neurons

endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

evolutionary perspective

perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share as means for survival, individually and as a species

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

fixed ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

frequency theory

theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; helps relax the brain and body

gate control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

gustation

sense of taste

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

law of effect

Thorndike's rule that behaviors which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

lesion

tissue destruction; used as a treatment for extreme mental illness

marijuana

a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive

medulla

controls heartbeat and breathing

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

morpheme

smallest unit of meaning

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech

myasthenia gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

negative reinforcement

increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

observational learning

learning by watching others

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

oleogustus

the taste of fat

olfactory bulb

a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes

opioids

synthetic chemical that are prescribed for pain relief

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision

overconfidence

tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions

papillae

taste buds

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

parietal lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

phoneme

smallest unit of sound

place theory

the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting rewarding stimuli, such as food

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information