Beliefs in society

Religion as a conservative force

Functionalism

Durkheim = religion causes consensus through shared beliefs and practices around a sacred object that unites people. Sacred and profane, Totemism e.g. Diwali

Malinowski = psychological function, Trobriand islanders would only pray when they went fishing in the dangerous open waters e.g. christian funeral verse commenting on resurrection in the after life

Parsons = 1. Religion provides moral guidelines and legitimises societies central or core values 2. Helps people to adjust to events that cannot be predicted

Bellah = civil religion, society attaches sacred qualities to itself and induces a mass response with similar levels of passion,dedication and commitment as those found in mainstream religion. USA dominated by ‘americanism’ e.g. pledge of allegiance

Religion as a conservative force

Marxism

Religion = opium of the people e.g. Lazarus

Religion legitimises ruling class power e.g. caste system

Religion is like a spiritual gin, keeps w/c confused and in their place - Lenin

Religion as a conservative force

Feminism

Armstrong religion = male dominated and exclude women from senior roles - evidence of women’s marginalisation

Turner- religion expects its male leaders to be ‘ascetic’ which is why women arent in senior roles - stained glass ceiling

Walby and De Beauvoir - religious doctrines contain ideology emphasising women’s traditional roles = gives power to men

Religion and social change

Neo-marxism

Religion has relative autonomy and do not automatically pass on a ruling class ideology 

Gramsci - individuals have dual consciousness due to their lived experiences of poverty and work. Therefore, they might subscribe to some aspects of ruling class ideology while being critical of others. Religion can also challenge the ruling class, some clergy act as organic intellectuals (educators and leaders who can help the workers and poor see the reality of their oppression) and help build a counter hegemony (popularising ideas that challenge the order of things and take for granted beliefs) e.g. archbishop Romero and liberation theology

Bloch - religion has a dual character and inspires change through an expression of the principle of hope - dreams of a better world, a utopian ending. Religion can help people see what needs to be changed and potentially bring about social change - inspires people who follow these religions to want to change their situation in the present. E.g. millenarian movement

Religion and social change

religion and social protest

Bruce - religion is involved in protest to try and change society - this religiously inspired protest can have 2 outcomes - progressive or regressive. Progressive e.g american civil rights movement.  Several ways in which religion was equipped to help social change during the civil rights movement: taking the moral high ground, channelling dissent, acting as an honest broker and mobilising public opinion e.g. Montgomery bus boycott

Regression = the new christian right, dont like abortion, homosexuality, divorce and wants to teach creationism in schools. Spreads word through the use of tv (televangelism) and political activism. E.g. Taliban

Religion and social change

Calvinism

Weber - proper ideas and beliefs including religion make up people’s worldviews which has important consequences for the way we think and act - Calvinism brought about the rise of capitalism = religious ideas were the main catalyst for the emergence of industrial capitalism. Calvinism = a form of ascetic protestantism

Religious organisations

Characteristics

Church = open membership, large bureaucratic hierarchical power structure (organisation), low commitment, monopoly of truth, likely to accept dominant norms and values of society and closely linked to the state e.g. church of england, catholic church

Denomination = dont appeal to the whole of society usually born into it, hierarchy with paid officials but a higher degree of democratic participation, higher commitment than a church and may impose some minor restrictions, no monopoly of truth, generally accept dominant norms and values of society e.g. methodism

Sect = exclusive = exclusive, tend to recruit from the poor and oppressed, a charismatic leader, single, tight-knit community, highest commitment with strong demands and expectations placed on members, monopoly of truth, hostile to wider society and try to separate themselves e.g. the people’s temple, jehova’s witnesses

Cults = non-exclusive and often appeal to everyone, loosely structured, low commitment and followers are more like customers than members, no monopoly of truth, accept the world as it is. E.g. transcendental meditation

Stark and bainbridge = audience cult, client cult, cultic movement (scientology)

Wallis - traditional classifications don't account for the variation - he categorises new religious movements into 3 groups based on their relationship to the outside world. World rejecting (the moonies), world accommodating (neo-pentecostalism)  and world affirming (human potential movement)

Religious organisations

explaining the existence/growth of religious organisations

The growth of sects and world rejecting new religious movements = marginalisation, social change (industralisation and the millenium, wesborough baptist church and moonies)

Growth of world accommodating new religious movements = secularisation from within - with the purity and passion of the faith declining they seek to restore it (evangelism and pentecostalism Nelson 1987) 

Growth of cults and world affirming new religious movements = social change (transcendental meditation), practical reasons, relative deprivation (human potential movement)

Religious organisations

Lifespan

Sects dont survive in its original form for a long time -Niebuhr because of the second generation, the protestant ethic effect or the death of a leader. Stark and Bainbridge say that sects dont die out completely but they move through a cycle - 1. Schism, 2. Initial fervour, 3. Denominalisation, 4. Establishment, 5. Further schism. Sects can also be self-destructive e.g. Peoples temple mass suicide. Ao3. some survive e.g. jehovah witnesses or the amish. Globalisation = harder to maintain hostility and separate themselves from people, secularisation = sects dont appeal, too strict and demanding 

Cults/world affirming NRM - dont survive because of weak commitment expected in these organisations, members are like customers and emphasis on consumerism and choice - postmodernists would say this reflects growing individual freedom associated with a post-modern society, shorter life span as its all about whats helpful now - not later 

Are all cults/world accommodating NRM short lived? - scientology, loads of celebrity members tom cruise, shamed if you leave, recruitment centre in large cities around the world, hook people in via personality tests and self help advice

Religious organisations

New age

Two common themes that characterise new age = self-spirituality and detraditionalization. Heelas = there are variations in new age beliefs - world affirming and world rejecting. Bruce = 5 features of new age -

1. Emphasis on the self-freeing the self from within,

2. everything is connected (a holistic approach to life, concerned with the mind, body and spirit all being connected, the idea that individuals are connected to the environment),

3. the self is the final authority there is no authority higher than the individual and no single truth: the truth is what the individual believes and what works for them,

4. global cafeteria there is a vast range of beliefs, therapies and techniques drawn from across the globe and people can mix these as they choose,

5. therapy - the new age ideas are designed to be therapeutic to make you more successful, healthier and happier

e.g. the burning man festival, kamalaya wellness sanctuary, paganism, Tai chi

over 1/3 of women are spiritual compared to 1/5 of men

Sutcliffe 2003 new age refers to a diverse range of ideas and lacks features such as premises, leaders, shared beliefs and rituals meaning it cant be considered a movement.

Religious organisations

Explaining the growth of the New age

Postmodernism

Decline of meta narratives - Drane 1999 people are losing faith in experts, are disillusioned and distrust what they have to offer - they turn to New Age to find the truth themselves - response to the harm caused by science and rationality e.g. global warming and modern warfare

Increased choice - People increasingly form their own identities through consumer culture such as the belief they buy into. Bruce - New age embodies spiritual shopping and ultimate choice in spirituality, pick beliefs and practices that align with our interests and identity, becoming a form of self expression. New age offers an opportunity to discover who your authentic self is and to express yourself in a way that you feel is genuine

Practical and pragmatic reasons

Heelas - self religions such as the new age appeal because they can offer techniques, knowledge and therapies to enhance life. They focus on issues such as reducing stress, finding career and financial success, happier and more personal fulfilment etc. They make you a better person both personally and socially

Relative deprivation

more people are feeling disconnected and alienated and the new age can help to fill this gap

Social change

Secularisation - Heelas Declining influence of religious beliefs, ideas and practices has resulted in fewer people identifying with traditional religions. = more people turning to new age movements to either fill a spiritual void or because it is now legitimate to believe in practices such as Wicca and crystals. Bruce - new age are watered down and softer versions of more demanding traditional eastern religions, e.g. Buddhism to make them more palatable to westerners. Problems created by traditional religions, e.g. conflict and old fashioned beliefs, lead many people to find alternative answers.

Globalisation - given people access to a whole range of ideas from around the world and a global marketplace of new age ideas. In particular has helped to raise awareness and visibility of the new age to the younger generation who are most likely to consume.

Religious organisation: Membership

Age

Usual Sunday Church attendance, England by Age Brierly 2015 - 65+ in 1980 was 810, in 2025 is 1,070. 15-19 in 1980 was 384, in 2025 it was 63.

The older a person is, the more likely they are to attend religious services, the belief in god is lowest amongst those aged 34 and highest amongst those in older age groups.

Why are older people more religious:

Cohort effect- lived through/experienced effects of major world events e.g. war. PTSD and trauma, death = mass impact. Vulnerability of life learnt so may feel they need to lean onto religion

Ageing effect - poorer health, approaching death etc. More likely to experience loss of loved ones - Malinowski psychological function.

Disengagement, retirement etc loneliness

Grew up in a more religious society = strong religious socialisation.

why do young people seem to be less religious:

Postmodernism - growing choice and freedom and so traditional religion with its commitment isnt attractive

Contraception and abortion in Catholic church, ban on female priests. Younger people have more progressive and liberal views, traditional religion doesnt align with this.

Other priorities, e.g. friends, school, work

Religious sermons seen as boring and outdated - very passive

Young people are abandoning traditional religion, but are seeking alternatives e.g. drawn to cults, new age movements and world affirming new religious movements. According to Study Pew 2023, 21% of adult americans who identify as ‘spritual but not religious’ are between 18-29.

Young people arent totally abandoning traditional religion, the rise of christian consumerism. e.g. Megachurch like Hill song, 116,200 annual visitors to hillsong are under the age of 30 - weekly average attendance of 2,000.

Faithtok

Young ethnic groups are more religious - Islam = fastest growing religion, e.g. in the UK 22% of christians were over the age of 65 VS 3.9% of Muslims being over the age of 65.

Religious organisation: Membership

Ethnicity

O’Beirne 2004 - muslims, hindus and black christians determine religion to be significant in their identities. Muslims regard religion as being equally important in their identity formation as their family. White christians rarely attribute any importance to their religion in their identity.

Reasons for higher religiosity amongst ethnic groups

Cultural transition - more religious to help ease the movement from one country to another, people who migrate can face issues like language, uncertainty in a new and unfamiliar environment and isolation - lack of networks. Herberg 1955 assimilation into mainstream society by jews and Catholics from eastern Europe - religion offered them a cultural space where they could work out their accommodation to a new society on their own terms. Norwich central Mosque offers a wide range of services to its members including daily prayer, Quran classes and community events - social gatherings. A* Cultural transition related to psychological function, Globalisation related to Cultural transition. These institutions would no longer be helpful for second or third generation immigrants. Ethnic minorities may be coming to these institutions just for the community, not because they believe.

Social deprivation - ethnic minorities live in some of the poorest households in the UK - many African Caribbeans also experience higher levels of unemployment as a result of issues such as institutional racism and may suffer from status frustration. Religion can give you psychological and practical support. Pakistani and Bangladeshi households are the poorest in Britain 63% lived in poverty 2005-6. Ethnic minorities are more likely to be employed in healthcare and science and technology.

Cultural defence - minorities use religion to defend themselves from the hostility of the majority population. Many ethnic minorities experience racism and hostility from wider society, so retreat into religion to help protect their identity. African Caribbean and Black africans found hat many white churches in the UK did not welcome them - they responded by either founding or joining black led churches.

Chryssides 1994 takes a more complex view - he identifies 3 possible pathways for immigrants and their descendants. Apostasy - beliefs are abandoned in a hostile environment. Accommodation - religious beliefs are adapted to take account of the changed situation, e.g. British muslims wearing fashionable but modest headscarves. Renewed vigour - religion is reasserted more strongly than ever as a response to actual or perceived hostility.

Religious socialisation - ethnic minorities experience greater religious socialisation compared to white, western children. e.g. more likely to be brought to weekly worship and religion will be a focal part of family life - high emphasis on tradition, morality and family loyalty. Modood et all - religion is an important source of socialisation and maintaining traditional morality such as responsibility, trust and right and wrong Not all children will follow the religious upbringing of their parents. Modood Identifies generational gaps over issues such as alcohol, education and clothing

Cultural identity - minority groups see religion as a way of maintaining cultural identity in terms of traditions such as food, language and dress. Kosher for jewish people, Hebrew in the Torah, hijabs etc. Diwali

White british people may be experiencing secularisation but its not everyone, e.g. Polands population is 87% catholic.

Religious organisation: Membership

Gender

55% of women vs 44% of men say they have a religion -British social attitudes survery 2012

Why are women more likely to be religious?

Risk averse - women are less inclined to take risks - not believing = major risk. % believing in life after death = 57% for women, 39% for men - Davie 1994

Socialisation, motherhood and femininity - Miller and Hoffman 1995 women are socialised to be more passive and obedient = religion teaches you to submit to God, religious services are based on sitting still and listening quietly. And women are more likely to be carers - children and elderly, they see the fragility of life = turn to religion for healing. Religion also emphasises care for others ‘love thy neighbour’ and caregiving also involves socialisation = socialise children into religion

Paid work - Bruce 2011 Women have lower levels of involvement in paid work = higher levels of religiosity. Religion has been driven out of the public sphere and confined to the private sphere of the family = religion becomes the womens domain. Going to church gives you a community when you lack one from work and religion gives women status e.g. mary.

Greater life expectancy - ONS life expectancy at birth in Uk was 79 for males and 83 for females Growing isolation can be combated by attending church regularly, religion answers existential questions which science may not have an answer to. Malinowski psychological function.

Deprivation and marginality - Stark and Bainbridge women are more likely to suffer from organismic deprivation (physical and mental health problems - thus seeking healing Latin america - limited access to healthcare, high levels of poverty and domestic violence = turn to pentecostalism for emotional healing - encourages males to change their ways and be more respectful towards women e.g. stop drinking, no prostitutes etc ), Ethical deprivation (more morally conservative due to socialisation thus seeing the world in moral decline In egypt some women feel that modernisation has led to moral decline and so they join Islamic piety movements, e,g, wearing hijab) and Social deprivation (women are more likely to be poor thanks to the glass ceiling At least one study suggests that almost twice as many women as men lived in Jonestown, with black women making up 45% vs white women 13%). Weber’s theory of deprivilege, Simone De Beauvoir - does nothing to change the cause of her oppression and doesnt do anything to get rid of it, psychological numbing her rather than actually helping

more likely to join Church because:

Free and not much commitment, good for social deprivation especially with giving women a purpose in the family. Might sacrifice money and status in the real world but status is elevated in religion.

Traditional conservative beliefs help with ethical deprivation

Large membership helps with low mental wellbeing due to community - say a prayer for them = psychological function.

More likely to join Sect because:

Single, charismatic leader offers hope and inspiration, many claim to perform miracles = organistic deprivation

Very strict conservative beliefs, and strong expectation to commit e.g. Westborough, Jehova’s witnesses

Everyone treated the same, often command support e.g. peoples temple = helps with social deprivation

More likely to join Cult/new age because:

self-help orientated = organistic deprivation. Therapeutic mind and body connection, Tai chi, chakra, reiki

Religious forms of feminism

some women see religion as a tool for liberation and equality - this could be a reason why women are more religious, particularly in parts of the world where patriarchy is deeply entrenched. E.g. women wearing hijab = no longer a victim of the male gaze.

Feminisation of religion - Woodhead 2005 suggested that churches have become feminised e.g. singing hymns, praising God, Sitting through sermons passively, festivities within the church e.g. decorating for christmas and easter . Religious practices and teachings emphasise care, compassion and emotional expression = less appealing to men.

despite women’s generally higher levels of participation in nearly all major religions, womens participation levels are declining.54% of Gen Z women have disaffiliated from religion Survey centre on American life this is because young women are becoming more liberal and progressive 2022 general social survey = 54% of young women are pro-choice, 31% of gen Z women identify as LGBTQ compared with 15% of Gen Z men

Women are rejecting traditional religion. since the late 1980s women have been leaving the church at a faster rate than men. Aune et all 2008 suggest this is because of - womens involvement in feminism, the changing roles of women and changing families and relationships

Women may lie on statistics tho

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