psych (2. biological bases)

sensory neurons (afferent neurons)

take information from the senses (body) to the brain → incoming info (bipolar)

motor neurons (efferent neurons)

“movement”, information from brain to the rest of the body. → outgoing info (multipolar)

interneurons

connect the two neurons responding in reflexes, → incoming and outgoing (unipolar)

resting potential

electrical potential of a neuron when it is in a resting, non-excited state. → fire on stimulus

positive ions (outside), negative ions (inside), axon surface selectively permeable

action potential

neural impulses, brief electrical charge that travels down an axon → change of potassium and sodium that causes an electrical charge in each neuron.

‘+’ → in, ‘-’ → out

threshold

enough to get an action potential, kind of like motivation!

when the depolarizing current (positive ions) minus the hyperpolarizing current (negative ions) exceeds minimum intensity, neuron fires.

depolarization

positive ions enter the neuron, making it more prone to firing

hyperpolarization

negative ions enter the neuron, making it less prone to firing

all or none response

if depolarizing current exceeds/fails to exceed the threshold, a neuron will/will not fire.

* no in between

refractory period

after neuron fires, needs to recharge/reset

synapse

junction between the axon tip of sending neuron and the dendrite/cell body of receiving.

the gap is called synaptic gap/cleft

sodium-potassium pump

moving sodium/potassium against their concentration gradient, requires atp through active transport.

* generates action potential

neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the sending neuron that signal “messages” between target cells.

reuptake

neurotransmitters are reabsorbed, applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action.

lock + key mechanism

neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron, key-lock mechanism

agonist (excitatory message)

increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate. (stimulants → make it fire)

antagonist (inhibitory message)

decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neurons will activate. (stop neural firing)

reuptake inhibitors

block reuptake

acetylcholine (ach)

first transmitter discovered, motor neuron, allows muscle movement. primary roles: learning, memory, muscle contractions

* too much/too little and you will…

dopamine

deals with motor movement and alertness,

• a lack of dopamine → parkinsons

• too much dopamine → schizophrenia

tau

protein found in neurons

in alzheimers disease, abnormal chemical changes cause them to detatch from microtubules and connect/tangle up leading to a multitude of diseases.

dopamine pathways

rewards system, attention, things going good

* dopamine hit !

serotonin

mood regulation

* lack of serotonin has been linked to clinical depression

endorphins

control pain and pleasure, released in response to pain. morphine and codeine work on endorphin receptors.

* ex. runner’s high

norepinephrine

arousal, “fight or flight” response.

primary roles, physical arousal, learning memory. disorder: depression

gaba

inhibition of brain activity, slows down the brain activity.

* huntington’s disease involves loss of neurons that utilize gaba, jerky involuntary movement, mental deterioration

glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter

* too much glutamate associated with epileptic seizures.

phrenology

franz gall: studying bumps on the skull could reveal a person’s mental abilities or character traits

localization of function

different parts of the brain have specific functions

biological psychologists

study the scientific link between biological and psychological processes

neurons

nerve cells, basic building block of the nervous system

* neural networks: many connected, tangled

nerves

a group of neurons form a nerve

dendrite

a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next.

* deterioration: multiple sclerosis

ion

electrically charged atoms

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

central nervous system (cns)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous systems (pns)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (cns) to the rest of the body.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.

* aka skeletal nervous system.

autonomic nervous system (ans)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (emergency reponse)

* fight or flight

parasympathethic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (calm down after sympathetic nervous system)

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

monozygotic twins (identical)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

dizygotic twins (fraternal)

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

polygenic

many genes; if a behavior or trait was caused by genes, it is likely caused by many genes

diathesis

related psychological disorders; many disorders might have a genetic predisposition with an environmental trigger

maturationism

related to development; all children follow the same pattern, sit up, crawl, walk.

plasticity

the brain changes and arranges itself on the cellular level in response to what is going on in the environment.

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. * adrenaline

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. “master gland”. under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. "

oxytocin

hormone that enables contractions associated with birthing, milk flow during nursing, and orgasm.

oxytocin also promotes pair bonding, group cohesion, and social trust

hormonal feedback system

brain → pituitary → other glands → hormones → body and brain

hypothalamus

important for learning and memory, replays memories in sleep cycles

maintenance

pineal glands

involved in producing metatonin

thyroid glands

regulates body’s metabolism

pancreas glands

produces energy, helps get energy from food

ovary glands

produce estrogen + progesterone

testes glands

produce testosterone

lesioning

tissue destruction. a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

electroencephalogram (eeg)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

* vera summer internship thing

computed tomography (ct) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

* aka cat scan

positron emission tomography (pet) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

magnetic resonance imaging (mri) scan

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. mri scans show brain anatomy.

ventricles

four connected fluid-filled brain areas

functional mri (fmri)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive mri scans. fmri scans show brain function as well as its structure.

spinal cord

structure, the “backbone” of the cns, transmits messages from the brain to the muscles to the glands throughout the body extend from the brain down the back, protected by vertebrae.

* spinal reflex is a simple, automatic response to something.

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

vital

thalamus

important for learning and memory, replays memories in sleep cycles

message central

pons

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

coordination

reticular formation

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

arousal

cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

discrimination + procedural

limbic system

located below the cerebral hemispheres, controls emotions and drives.

amygdala

located below the cerebral hemispheres, controls emotions and drives.

emotion

james olds + peter milner

tried to implant an electrode in a rat’s reticular formation, but did it wrong and rat kept returning to location of stimulation → pleasurable rewards

basal ganglia

the brain’s reward system

cerebral cortex

located below the cerebral hemispheres, controls emotions and drives.

* surface area → increased by fissures

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

* most abundant cells in the body

* schwann cell → myelin sheath

frontal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

hippocampus

important for learning and memory, replays memories in sleep cycles

memories

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

cell body (soma)

contains the nucleus and other structures which function to maintain the health of the neuron

axon terminal

axon endings, make synaptic connections with another nerve cell/effector cell

plasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum band) connecting them.

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

molecular genetics

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.