AP Psychology All Terms

All terms

Empiricism / Empirical Approach

This is the view that knowledge comes from experience and that science should rely on *observation* and *experiment*.

Structuralism

This is an early school of psychology that used *introspection* to explore basic elements (structure) of consciousness. Early proponents of this school of thought include *Wilhelm Wundt* and *Edward Titchener*.

Functionalism

This is an early school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes *function*. A proponent of this school of thought was *William James*.

Experimental Psychology

Study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.

Behaviorism

This is a scientific approach (and school of psychological thought) that limits the study of psychology to *measurable or observable* behavior (versus mental processes). Noteworthy proponents of this approach include: John *Watson*, B.F. *Skinner*, Ivan *Pavlov*, Edward *Thorndike*, and Albert *Bandura*.

Humanistic Psychology

Perspective that emphasizes the *growth potential* of healthy people and individual's potential for personal growth. Noteworthy proponents of this approach include: Abraham *Maslow* and Carl *Rogers*.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Interdisciplinary study of the *brain activity* linked with *cognition* (i.e. perception, thinking, memory).

Psychology

The scientific study of *behavior* and *mental processes*.

Nature-Nurture Issue

Controversy over the relative contributions of *genes* and *environment/experience* on the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Natural Selection

Principle (put forth by Charles *Darwin*) that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Biopsychosocial Approach

This is an integrated approach that incorporates *biological*, *psychological*, and *social-cultural* elements (and their *interactions*) to explain behavior and mental processes.

Biological Psychology

Branch of psychology concerned with the links between *biology* and *behavior*.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. Asks the question, "how does evolution influence behavioral tendencies?"

Psychodynamic Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how *unconscious* drives and conflicts influence behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of *learning* in explaining observable behavior.

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of all the *mental activities* associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Social-Cultural Psychology

The study of how *situations and cultures* affect our behavior and thinking.

Psychometrics

The scientific study of the *measurement* of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social *change* throughout the life span

Educational Psychology

The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Personality Psychology

The study of an *individual's* characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to *one another*.

Applied Research / Applied Psychologist

Scientific study that aims to solve *practical* problems.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing *human behavior in workplaces*.

Counseling Psychology

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in *living* and in achieving greater well-being.

Clinical Psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the *diagnosis* and *treatment* of psychological *disorders*.

Psychiatry

The branch of medicine dealing with the *diagnosis* and *treatment* of mental disorders.

Levels of Analysis

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Pseudopsychology

*Erroneous* assertions or practices set forth as being scientific psychology.

Introspection

The process of reporting *one's own* conscious mental experiences.

Gestalt Psychology

A school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole; focused on the idea that our minds tend to perceive objects as part of a *greater whole* and as elements of more complex systems; played a major role in the modern development of the study of human *sensation and perception*.

Psychoanalysis

An approach to psychology based on *Freud's* assertion, which emphasized the *unconscious* process. The goal of psychoanalysis is to release conflicts and memories from the unconscious.

Wilhelm *Wundt*

Established the *first psychology laboratory* at the Germany, where introspection was used. He focused on inner sensations, images, and feelings, which is known as *structuralism*.

William *James*

Wrote the first influential *textbook* on psychology, called Principles of Psychology (1890); a leading psychologist in the *functionalism* movement, which emphasized the function (rather than the structure) of consciousness.

Mary *Calkins*

She was the first *female president of the APA*. Studying under William James, she met all the requirement of a Harvard PhD but was denied the degree due to being a woman. Nevertheless, she still became a distinguished memory researcher.

Margaret *Washburn*

She was the *first woman* to receive a *psychology PhD* and the second female president of the APA. Wrote "The Animal Mind."

Sigmund *Freud*

Often know as the father of modern psychology and *psychoanalysis*; believed that the unconscious determines everything we do; his theories include the ideas of the stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital) and the three parts of the mind- the id, ego, and superego; believed that dreams, free association, and hypnosis could reveal the *unconscious* mind.

John *Watson*

Established the idea of *behaviorism*; recommended the study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental process. Also conducted the *"Little Albert" experiment* where he proved classical conditioning. He presented the child with a white rat and a loud noise and soon enough the child was afraid of the white rat.

B. F. *Skinner*

Associated with *operant conditioning* and responsible for the *Skinner Box*, or the operant conditioning chamber. He sought to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing consequences.

Carl *Rogers*

*Humanistic* psychologist who used the theory of self-concept. To help his clients get back on the road to self-actualization, he developed a therapeutic approach called *client-centered therapy*, in which the therapist offers the client *unconditional positive regard* by supporting the client regardless of what is said.

Ivan *Pavlov*

His experiments with dogs led him to discover *classical conditioning*. Discovered that he could condition dogs to salivate at the sound of a tone when the tone was repeatedly presented with food.

Jean *Piaget*

Studied the *cognitive development* of children. Defined four stages of cognitive development.

Charles *Darwin*

Proposed the *evolutionary* process of *natural selection* in his 1859 book, "On the Origin of the Species"

Dorothea *Dix*

Reformer who led the way to *humane treatment* of those with psychological disorders.

Max *Wertheimer*

A founding figure of *Gestalt* psychology;

Psychiatrist

a *medical doctor* who diagnosis and treats psychological disorders. Can *prescribe medication*.

Chronological Order of Perspectives

(SFB) - Structuralism -\> Functionalism -\> Behaviorism, followed by Humanism & the "Cognitive revolution"

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Sample

Items *selected* at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population

Culture

the *enduring* behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions *shared by a large group* of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, *after learning an outcome*, that one would have foreseen it.

Debriefing

the post-experimental *explanation* of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, *to its participants*

Informed Consent

An ethical principle requiring that research *participants be told* enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Inferential Statistics

*Numerical methods* used to determine whether research data supports a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance.

Normal Distribution (Curve)

A symmetrical, *bell-shaped* curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (i.e. *highest minus lowest*); Useful for

Confounding Variable

A factor *other than* the independent variable that might produce an *effect* in an experiment.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is *not exposed to the treatment*; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is *exposed to the treatment* (in other words, exposed to one version of the independent variable).

Placebo Effect

any effect that seems to be a consequence of administering an *inert* substance.

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the *relationship* between two variables (ranging from -1 to +1); 0 = no relationship; 1 = strong positive relationship; -1 = strong negative relationship

Population

*All* those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Hypothesis

a *testable* prediction, often implied by a theory

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study. In other words, *exactly* how you will measure or define your variables.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of *how likely* it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Replication

*Repeating* the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Experiment

A research method in which an *investigator manipulates* one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the *self-reported* attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

Case Study

An observation technique in which *one person* is studied *in depth* in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where *none exists*

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an *equal chance* of inclusion

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

Random Assignment

*Assigning* participants to experimental and control conditions by *chance* ,thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores *vary around the mean* score.

Median

The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Mode

The most *frequently occurring* score(s) in a distribution.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied.

Double Blind Procedure

This is an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Use of this procedure helps to ensure impartiality and helps to avoid errors arising from bias.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures of predicts what it is supposed to.

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results.

What % of cases fall between one standard deviations of (either side of) the mean?

68%

What % of cases fall between two standard deviations of (either side of) the mean?

95%

What % of cases fall between three standard deviations of (either side of) the mean?

99.7%

tabula rasa

The idea championed by John *Locke* that the mind is a *blank slate* at birth (on which experience writes).

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

Neuron

A *nerve cell*; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

A neuron's bushy, *branching extensions* that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

The neuron *extension* that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A *fatty tissue layer* segmentally *encasing the axons* of some neurons; enable vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

Action Potential

A neural *impluse*; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Refractory period

A *period of inactivity* after a neuron has fired

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to *trigger* a neural response

All-or-none Response

A neuron's reaction of *either* firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

Synapse

The *junction* between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the recieving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft