PNB 2275 Lab Practical set 1

plasma

~55% of blood, mostly water, contains proteins and other dissolved solutes like urea, salts, and organic nutrients

buffy coat

white blood cells and platelets

formed elements

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, fragments that break off from larger cells

white blood cells / leukocytes

help initiate immune responses and defend the body against pathogens, motile and flexible, large, found in body tissues not bloodstream
- Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas \= neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils

red blood cells / erythrocytes

biconcave shape, most abundant blood cell, no nucleus

platelets / thrombocytes

one of the formed elements in the blood that is responsible for aiding in the clotting process, no nucleus

granulocytes

contain many dark staining granules in the cytoplasm of the cell, multi-lobed nucleus; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

neutrophils

nucleus has several lobes that look like beads on a string, and many dark staining granules, usually about 60% of WBC

eosinophils

nucleus forms two lobes and many pink staining granules, about 3% of WBC

Basophils

lobed nucleus hidden by many dark staining granules, usually

agranulocytes

contain very few dark staining granules in the cytoplasm of the cell; lymphocytes and monocytes

lymphocytes

B, T, and natural killer cells, have an oval, evenly stained nucleus that makes the cell look like a fried egg, about 25% of WBC

monocytes

agranular leukocytes, bean shaped nucleus, about 10% of WBCs

sickle cell anemia

a genetic disorder that causes abnormal hemoglobin, resulting in some red blood cells assuming an abnormal sickle shape, slows blood flow and thus oxygen delivery

polycythemia

elevated proportion of RBCs either via increase in RBC count or decrease in blood plasma volume, can cause high blood pressure and clotting

infectious mononucleosis

caused by Epstein-Barr virus, abnormally large lymphocytes with wrong shape nuclei, "cytoplasmic skirting" around RBCs

leukemia

unregulated overproduction of immature leukocytes

Which of the following blood diseases can be recognized by reactive lymphocytes characterized by bright blue cytoplasm and "skirting" of red blood cells?
a. sickle cell anemia
b. polycythemia
c. infectious mononucleosis
d. leukemia

c. infectious mononucleosis

hemagglutination

clumping reactions involving red blood cells

type A blood

erythrocytes with type A surface antigens and plasma with anti-B antibodies, shows clumping with anti-A serum

type B blood

erythrocytes with type B surface antigens and plasma with anti-A antibodies, shows clumping with anti-B serum

type AB blood

erythrocytes with both A and B antigens on the surface and plasma with neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies, shows clumping with both anti-A and anti-B serum

type O blood

erythrocytes with neither A or B antigens on the surface and plasma with both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, doesn't show clumping with either serum

rhesus (Rh) factor

+ or -, positive can receive both positive and negative blood, - can only receive - blood, will clump with anti-D if positive

If a patient who is type B+ blood receives a transfusion of type A+ blood, what would cause agglutination of patient's blood?
a. reaction of anti-A antibodies in patient's blood with antigen A on surface of donor erythrocyte
b. reaction of anti-B antibodies in patient blood with antigen B on surface of donor erythrocytes
c. lack of antibodies in patient's blood
d. reaction of anti-A and anti-B antibodies in patient's blood with antigen A on surface of donor erythrocytes

a. reaction of anti-A antibodies in patient blood with antigen A on surface of donor erythrocytes

One molecule of hemoglobin can bind to \____ molecules of oxygen

4

tense state

heme subunits are less receptive to oxygen binding

relaxed state

heme subunits are more receptive to oxygen binding, higher affinity

cooperativity

The process by which the binding of the substrate to the enzyme triggers a favorable conformation change, which causes a similar change in all of the proteins' subunits to increase binding affinity
- efficient oxygen binding at lungs where pressure is high
- decreased affinity at tissues where you need to drop off oxygen

When one oxygen molecule binds to hemoglobin, the affinity of the remaining hemoglobin subunits for oxygen is increased. This is due to which principle?

cooperative binding

P50

the partial pressure of oxygen at which the hemoglobin is 50% saturated with oxygen

T/F: In the systemic capillaries in muscle tissue, hemoglobin releases virtually all of the oxygen it is carrying and becomes completely desaturated

false

right shift in oxygen dissociation curve

the partial pressure needed to saturate is higher, the p50 is higher, thus O2 affinity is lower

Conditions that favor the LOADING of oxygen into hemoglobin will cause which of the following?

left shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

factors that shift oxygen dissociation curve right

INCREASE: carbon dioxide, acidity, DPG, exercise (CO2 and temp), temperature
DECREASE: pH

What is the typical range of hemoglobin value for a male (include appropriate unit)? What is a typical range of hemoglobin value for a female? Why is the reason for this difference?

The typical range of hemoglobin for males is 13.0 - 18.0 gm%. For females, the normal range is 11.0 - 16.0 gm%. The difference is partially due to more testosterone in males. The increased hormone levels affect erythropoetin production which increases the production of red blood cells.

As can be seen in this figure, at a PO2 between 80 - 100 mm Hg, most HbO is saturated (i.e. in the form of oxyhemoglobin, HbO). What does the upper plateau of sigmoid curve ensure?

The upper plateau of the curve displays 100 or almost 100% saturation of oxygen to keep a healthy reserve amount circulating on the hemoglobin.

What is P50 in this figure?

P50 refers to the point at which 50% of hemoglobin in the blood is saturated with oxygen. In this figure, P50 appears to be around 25 mmHg of oxygen.

What does a right shift mean (as shown in this figure)? Is it easier or harder to unload the oxygen from hemoglobin as the curve shift to the right? Will more or less oxygen will be released to the tissue?

a right shift in the curve signifies a decreased affinity for oxygen which means more oxygen will be released to the tissue

based on the figure above, what wavelength would you use for this experiment?

You would use the wavelength 660 because the information is most useful when it comes from the largest differences in the samples

spectrophotometer

used to quantify the concentration of a solute in a sample by measuring the absorbance of light

Beer's Law

linear relationship between the concentration of solute in a solution and the absorbance of electromagnetic radiation

According to Beer's Law, which of the following can change the absorbance of the sample measured using spectrophotometry?

concentration of sample

To construct an oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve in lab, you will use the spectrophotometer to measure the absorbance of hemoglobin samples at which of the following wavelengths?

660 nm

% Hemoglobin Saturation

\= (A - B)/(A-C) x 100%
A: absorbance at 660 nm of deoxygenated hemoglobin
B: absorbance at 660 nm after each pressure reduction
C: absorbance at 660 nm of oxygenated hemoglobin

PO2

(air pressure measured in mmHg) x 0.21

Compared to control condition, a blood sample with stripped DPG has a(n) \______ P50 and \________ affinity of O2 to hemoglobin

decreased; increased

A 27-year old male has been rushed to the hospital and into surgery after sustaining a severe wound to his right arm. A lab tech is making sure supplies are stocked in the OR. Labs for his blood type reveal results similar to the ones seen in Unknown Sample 2. What blood types can be safely administered to this patient? (List all types, including Rh+/-).

The blood in sample 2 shows agglutination in Well A and Well B, which means the person has type AB - blood. Therefore, they can receive A-, B-, AB-, or O- blood

hematocrit

percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells

Packed Red Cell Volume

(packed RBC/total volume) x 100

If an individual were suffering from polycythemia, how would this affect their hematocrit?

Polycythemia results in an abnormally high level of red blood cells, which would increase the red blood cell volume and therefore give a higher hematocrit

Which situation will result in a high hematocrit value?
a. polycythemia
b. recent hemorrhage
c. fluid retention

a. polycythemia

systemic circulation

closed-loop circuit between the heart and all the tissues of the body. it transports oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart to capillaries within tissues for gas exchange

pulmonary circulation

closed-loop circuit between the heart and the lungs. it transports deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to capillaries within the lung for gas exchange

artery

vessel that transports blood from the heart to the tissues
- narrow, thick, more elastic, no valve, higher blood pressure, tunica media is thickest layer

vein

a vessel that transports blood from the tissues to the heart
- wide, less elastic, valves, lower blood pressure, externa is thickest tunica

capillaries

fine-branching blood vessels where nutrient and waste product exchange between blood and tissue takes place; form a network between the arterioles and venules

arterioles

important for maintaining steady blood pressure due to their vastness and their ability to vasoconstrict and vasodilate; the ability controls which capillary beds blood is directed toward

venules

collect blood from capillary beds and return blood to the heart using the venous network

arterial anastomosis

a network or a connection between multiple blood vessels, functions to ensure a continuous blood supply to tissue if one vessel is blocked due to normal movements of the body or injury, disease, or surgery; blood can flow in both directions within these vessels

tunica

3 layers that make up the walls of arteries and veins, intima, media, and externa

tunica intima

innermost layer, composed of an endothelium and a sub-endothelial layer that is made up of a thin, areolar connective tissue

tunia media

middle layer composed of circularly-arranged smooth muscles, performs vasoconstriction

tunica externa

outermost layer, composed of areolar connective tissue that contains elastic and collagen fibers, this layer helps anchor the vessel to other structures

atherosclerosis

large deposition of lipid or other debris on the inside of the arteries, quite dangerous, may contribute to many pathological conditions

sinoatrial (SA) node

pacemaker cells that propagates action potentials through muscle fibers of atria

atrioventricular (AV) node

electrical connection between atrial muscle and ventricular muscle, also serves as backup pacemaker

steps of heart beat

first wave initiated at the SA node -\> across atrium to AV node -\> atrial contraction -\> AV bundle of his -\> purkinje fibers -\> ventricular contraction

P wave

represents atrial depolarization, associated with atrial contraction

QRS complex

represents ventricular depolarization but also contains atrial repolarization; together initiates ventricular contraction and atrial relaxation

T wave

represents ventricular repolarization and initiates ventricular relaxation

ECG reading

the voltage difference between the positive and negative electrode
- positive current moves from negative to positive, it will create a positive deflection in a trace
- positive current moving from positive to negative will create a negative deflection

When a positive charge moves from the right hand to the left hand, what will be recorded in lead 1?

positive current

calculate QRS complex

(height of R) - (height of Q) - (height of S)

mean QRS axis

net projection of the intersection of the leads, measure angle starting at zero and going clockwise
- normal is between 0-90 degrees

Which of the following statements is true?
a. the mean QRS axis represents the net direction of the atrial depolarization
b. a mean QRS axis of 85 degrees is considered abnormal and indicates myocardial damage
c. to measure the mean QRS axis, you need to start from 0 degree (at the positive end of Lead I) and go counterclockwise
d. an abnormal mean QRS axis could indicate changes in the sequence of ventricular activation of myocardial damage

d. an abnormal mean QRS axis could indicate changes in the sequence of ventricular activation of myocardial damage

Why is the left brachiocephalic vein longer than the right brachiocephalic vein?

The veins start at the superior vena cava, which is closer to the right side of the body so the left vein has to travel farther to cross the midline between the right side of the heart and the left side of the brain

Compare/contrast the common carotid arteries and subclavian arteries for each side fo the body. What is the significance of the brachiocephalic trunk (artery)?

The carotid and subclavian arteries on the right side originate from the brachiocephalic trunk. On the left side, there's not a separate brachiocephalic trunk so the left arteries branch directly off the aortic arch.

common carotid artery and internal jugular vein

pump blood to and from the brain, neck, and face

internal carotid artery and external carotid artery

branch off the common carotid artery

facial artery

branches off the external carotid artery

abdominal aorta

distal part of the descending aorta; contains tree important arterial branches (celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, inferior mesentery artery) that provide blood to all the organs within the abdominal cavity

celiac trunk

supplies blood to the liver, spleen, stomach, pancreas, and duodenum

superior mesenteric artery

supplies blood to the most distal end of the ileum, as well as the cecum, ascending colon, and most of the transverse colon

inferior mesenteric artery

supplies the descending colon, sigmoid colon, and the rectum

Why is the right renal artery longer than the left renal artery?

the right renal artery has to cross the inferior vena cava to reach the right kidney, while the left renal artery is closer and has a more direct path to the left kidney

which of the following does not branch off the celiac trunk?
a. common hepatic artery
b. left gastric artery
c. proper hepatic artery
d. splenic artery

proper hepatic artery

inferior vena cava

largest vein in the body, formed by the union of the common iliac veins, travels superiorly along the right side of the abdominal aorta and is anterior to the vertebral column; transports deoxygenated blood back from the trunk, organs, abdomen, and lower extremities

azygos vein

a vein running up the right side of the thoracic vertebral column draining itself towards the superior vena cava

axillary artery

a continuation of the subclavian artery after is passes the 1st rib; supplies blood to the lateral aspect of the thorax, axilla (armpit) and upper limb

the cephalic vein drains into which blood vessel?

axillary vein

brachial artery

a continuation of the axillary artery and travels distally along the medical aspect of the arm where it terminates at the cubital fossa

basilic vein

large superficial vein of the upper limb that helps drain parts of the hand and forearm; cephalic vein is other main vein of the arm, together they empty into the axillary vein

flow of blood from the aortic arch to the right atrium passing through a capillary bed in the right deep palm

aortic arch --\> brachiocephalic trunk --\> right subclavian artery --\> right axillary artery --\> right brachial artery --\> right ulnar artery --\> deep palmar arterial arch --\> capillary bed --\> deep palmar venous arch --\> right ulnar vein --\> right basilic vein --\> right axillary vein --\> right subclavian vein --\> right brachiocephalic vein --\> superior vena cava

what artery provides the main blood supply to the anterior thigh?

femoral artery

order of arteries in the lower body

abdominal aorta --\> L/R common iliac arteries (pelvis) --\> external/internal iliac artery (pelvis) --\> femoral artery (thigh) --\> popliteal artery (knee) --\> anterior/posterior tibial artery (leg) --\> arteries of the foot

order of veins in the lower body

veins of the foot --\> tibial/fibular vein (leg) --\> popliteal vein (knee) --\> saphenous veins (leg and thigh) --\> femoral vein (thigh) --\> external/internal iliac vein (pelvis) --\> L/R common iliac veins (pelvis) --\> inferior vena cava

large vessels

aorta and vena cavae, attach directly to the heart and are important for the transport of blood to/from the heart
- relatively thin tunica externa (adventitia), provides support and protection to the vessel
- tunica media: thick, composed of elastic fibers and smooth muscle, allows distention and recoil of the vessel to accommodate changes in BP when the heart beats
- tunica intima: very thick, lines and protects the lumen of the vessel

Which component in the wall of the aorta is responsible for withstanding high blood pressure due to ejection of blood from the heart?

elastic fibers

plaque/atherosclerosis

damage to endothelium lining a blood vessel leads to the adhesion of cholesterol to the underlying subendothelial layer \= build up of WBCs to remove cholesterol, causes narrowing of lumen