IGCSE CIE HISTORY

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] Treaty of Versailles

A peace treaty signed on June 28, 1919, that officially ended World War I and imposed strict terms on Germany.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] The Big Three

The main leaders at the Treaty negotiations—Georges Clemenceau (France), Woodrow Wilson (USA), and David Lloyd George (UK)—who had different aims for the treaty.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] Clemenceau's Aims

Wanted harsh punishment for Germany, including heavy reparations, a weakened military, and territorial losses to ensure France's security.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] Lloyd George's Aims

Wanted a balance between punishing Germany and allowing it to recover economically for future trade with Britain.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] Wilson's Aims

Aimed for a fair peace based on his Fourteen Points, including self-determination and the creation of the League of Nations.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] War Guilt Clause

Article 231 of the treaty, which forced Germany to accept full responsibility for starting World War I.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] Reparations

Germany was ordered to pay £6.6 billion in compensation to the Allied countries for war damages.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] Military Restrictions

Germany's army was limited to 100,000 soldiers, and it was banned from having submarines, an air force, or tanks.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] Territorial Losses

Germany lost 13% of its land, including Alsace-Lorraine to France, and all of its overseas colonies.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] The Rhineland

A demilitarized zone was created in the Rhineland, meaning Germany could not station troops there to protect France's security.

[The aims and terms of the Treaty of Versailles] The League of Nations

An international organization established by the treaty to promote peace, though Germany was initially excluded from joining.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Economic Impact

Germany struggled to pay the £6.6 billion in reparations, leading to economic crises such as hyperinflation in 1923.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Political Instability

The treaty caused anger among Germans, leading to uprisings like the Kapp Putsch (1920) and the Munich Putsch (1923).

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Dolchstoss (Stab-in-the-Back) Myth

A belief that Germany had not truly lost the war but was betrayed by politicians who signed the treaty, weakening trust in the Weimar Republic.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Military Weakness

The treaty's restrictions on Germany's army (100,000 soldiers, no tanks, submarines, or air force) left it vulnerable to external threats.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Territorial Losses

Germany lost 13% of its land, including key industrial areas like the Saar Basin and Upper Silesia, reducing its economic strength.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Loss of Colonies

Germany's overseas colonies were taken and given as mandates to Britain and France, reducing its global influence.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] The Ruhr Crisis (1923)

France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr, Germany's key industrial region, after it failed to pay reparations, worsening economic hardship.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Public Anger

Many Germans saw the treaty as unfair and humiliating, calling it a "Diktat" (dictated peace) since they were not allowed to negotiate its terms.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Impact on Weimar Republic

The treaty damaged the reputation of the new democratic government, making it unpopular and leading to political extremism.

[Impact of the Treaty on Germany] Long-Term Effects

The treaty's harsh terms fueled resentment in Germany, contributing to the rise of Hitler and the outbreak of World War II.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919)

A treaty that dismantled the Austro-Hungarian Empire, reducing Austria's land, limiting its army, and forbidding union with Germany.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Treaty of Trianon (1920)

A treaty that significantly reduced Hungary's territory and population, leading to economic struggles and resentment.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Treaty of Neuilly (1919)

A treaty that punished Bulgaria by making it lose land to Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania, and limiting its army.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Treaty of Sèvres (1920)

A treaty that severely weakened the Ottoman Empire by giving large territories to Britain and France as mandates.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Treaty of Lausanne (1923)

A revised treaty that replaced Sèvres, allowing Turkey to regain some territory and removing foreign control over its finances.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Creation of New Nations

The peace treaties led to the formation of new countries such as Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Weakness of New States

Many new countries, such as Czechoslovakia and Poland, contained mixed ethnic groups, leading to internal conflicts.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Impact on Germany's Neighbors

The weakening of Germany, Austria, and Hungary created power vacuums in Central Europe, leading to instability.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Italian Dissatisfaction

Italy was disappointed with the treaties, as it did not receive all the land it was promised, leading to political unrest.

[The wider impact of the peace treaties (1919-1923)] Future Conflicts

The harshness and instability caused by the treaties contributed to future tensions, eventually leading to World War II.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] League of Nations

An international organization set up in 1920 to promote peace and prevent future wars through collective security and diplomacy.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Assembly

The main decision-making body of the League, where each member country had one vote; met once a year.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Council

A smaller, more powerful group within the League that included permanent members (Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and temporary members; met more often and could take quicker action.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Secretariat

The administrative branch of the League, responsible for handling paperwork and implementing decisions.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Permanent Court of International Justice

A court based in The Hague that settled disputes between countries, though it had no power to enforce its rulings.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Collective Security

The principle that all member nations would work together to stop aggression and prevent war, using sanctions or military action if necessary.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Strength: Humanitarian Work

The League successfully tackled issues like refugee assistance, slavery, and disease control, improving global conditions.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Strength: Border Disputes

The League resolved several international conflicts peacefully, such as the Aaland Islands dispute between Sweden and Finland.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: Lack of Major Powers

The USA never joined, and key nations like Germany (until 1926) and the USSR (until 1934) were excluded, weakening the League's authority.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: No Army

The League had no military force of its own, relying on members to enforce decisions, which they often refused to do.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: Slow Decision-Making

The League's structure required unanimous decisions, making it difficult to act quickly during crises.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: Failure to Stop Aggression

The League failed to prevent conflicts such as the Manchurian Crisis (1931) and the Abyssinian Crisis (1935), damaging its credibility.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] League of Nations

An international organization set up in 1920 to promote peace and prevent future wars through collective security and diplomacy.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Assembly

The main decision-making body of the League, where each member country had one vote; met once a year.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Council

A smaller, more powerful group within the League that included permanent members (Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and temporary members; met more often and could take quicker action.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Secretariat

The administrative branch of the League, responsible for handling paperwork and implementing decisions.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Permanent Court of International Justice

A court based in The Hague that settled disputes between countries, though it had no power to enforce its rulings.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Collective Security

The principle that all member nations would work together to stop aggression and prevent war, using sanctions or military action if necessary.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Strength: Humanitarian Work

The League successfully tackled issues like refugee assistance, slavery, and disease control, improving global conditions.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Strength: Border Disputes

The League resolved several international conflicts peacefully, such as the Aaland Islands dispute between Sweden and Finland.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: Lack of Major Powers

The USA never joined, and key nations like Germany (until 1926) and the USSR (until 1934) were excluded, weakening the League's authority.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: No Army

The League had no military force of its own, relying on members to enforce decisions, which they often refused to do.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: Slow Decision-Making

The League's structure required unanimous decisions, making it difficult to act quickly during crises.

[The League of Nations: Structure, strengths, and weaknesses] Weakness: Failure to Stop Aggression

The League failed to prevent conflicts such as the Manchurian Crisis (1931) and the Abyssinian Crisis (1935), damaging its credibility.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Aaland Islands Dispute (1921)

A success for the League; it peacefully resolved a territorial dispute between Sweden and Finland, awarding the islands to Finland while protecting Swedish cultural rights.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Upper Silesia Plebiscite (1921)

A success for the League; it organized a vote to decide whether Upper Silesia should belong to Germany or Poland, then fairly divided the region based on the results.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Mosul Dispute (1924)

A success for the League; it settled a dispute between Iraq and Turkey, awarding Mosul to Iraq and preventing conflict.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Bulgaria Dispute (1925)

A success for the League; when Greece invaded Bulgaria after a border clash, the League ordered Greece to withdraw, which it did.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Refugee Work (1920s)

A success for the League; it helped over 400,000 prisoners of war return home and assisted refugees fleeing conflict zones.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Health Organization (1920s)

A success for the League; it led campaigns against diseases like leprosy and malaria and later influenced the creation of the World Health Organization (WHO).

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Economic and Social Work (1920s)

A success for the League; it helped improve working conditions, fought against drug trafficking, and worked to abolish slavery in some regions.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Vilna Dispute (1920)

A failure for the League; Poland invaded Vilna (capital of Lithuania), and despite Lithuania appealing for help, the League failed to take action, allowing Poland to keep the city.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Corfu Crisis (1923)

A failure for the League; when Italy invaded the Greek island of Corfu after an Italian diplomat was killed, the League's ruling was ignored, and Greece was forced to pay compensation.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Disarmament Failures (1920s)

A failure for the League; it attempted to promote global disarmament, but no major countries agreed to reduce their military forces significantly.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Ruhr Crisis (1923)

A failure for the League; France and Belgium invaded Germany's Ruhr region when Germany failed to pay reparations, but the League was unable to intervene.

[Successes and failures of the League in the 1920s] Lack of U.S. Support

A failure for the League; without the USA, the League lacked economic and military power, making it difficult to enforce decisions.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Manchurian Crisis (1931-1933)

A major failure for the League when Japan invaded Manchuria, China; the League condemned Japan but took no effective action.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Mukden Incident (1931)

A staged explosion on a Japanese railway in Manchuria, which Japan used as an excuse to invade and occupy the region.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Lytton Report (1932)

A League investigation that concluded Japan had acted aggressively in Manchuria, but it took a year to publish and had no real impact.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Japan Leaves the League (1933)

After the League condemned its actions, Japan ignored the League and withdrew, showing the League's weakness.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Impact of Manchuria Crisis

The League failed to stop a major power's aggression, proving it was powerless against strong nations and encouraging further aggression.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Abyssinian Crisis (1935-1936)

A major failure for the League when Italy, led by Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) and the League's response was weak.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Wal-Wal Incident (1934)

A clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops at Wal-Wal, which Mussolini used as an excuse to launch a full-scale invasion.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Sanctions Against Italy (1935)

The League imposed limited economic sanctions on Italy but did not ban vital resources like oil and coal, allowing Italy to continue its invasion.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Hoare-Laval Pact (1935)

A secret deal between Britain and France that proposed giving Mussolini part of Abyssinia, which was leaked and caused public outrage.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Italy Takes Abyssinia (1936)

Italy fully occupied Abyssinia, and the League did nothing, showing its inability to stop aggression.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Italy Leaves the League (1937)

After the crisis, Italy withdrew from the League, further weakening its authority.

[The League and international crises (Manchuria, Abyssinia)] Impact of Abyssinia Crisis

The failure to act against Italy showed the League was powerless, encouraging Hitler's aggression in Europe and undermining collective security.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] Economic Impact

The treaty forced Germany to pay £6.6 billion in reparations, leading to severe financial hardship, hyperinflation (1923), and economic instability.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] Political Instability

Many Germans blamed the Weimar Republic for accepting the treaty, leading to uprisings like the Kapp Putsch (1920) and Munich Putsch (1923).

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] Military Restrictions

The treaty reduced Germany's army to 100,000 men, banned conscription, prohibited tanks, submarines, and an air force, leaving Germany vulnerable.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] Territorial Losses

Germany lost 13% of its land, including Alsace-Lorraine (to France), West Prussia and Posen (to Poland), and the Saar (under League control), weakening its economy.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] Loss of Colonies

All German overseas colonies were taken and given as mandates to Britain and France, reducing Germany's global influence.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] War Guilt Clause (Article 231)

Germany was forced to accept full responsibility for World War I, which angered Germans and was used by nationalists to attack the Weimar government.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] The Dolchstoss (Stab-in-the-Back) Myth

Many Germans believed they had not truly lost the war but were betrayed by politicians who signed the treaty, fueling resentment.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] Occupation of the Ruhr (1923)

France and Belgium occupied Germany's industrial Ruhr region after it failed to pay reparations, worsening economic hardship and causing passive resistance.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] Weakening of the Weimar Republic

The treaty's harsh terms made the democratic government unpopular, leading to political extremism and the rise of Adolf Hitler.

[The impact of the Treaty of Versailles] International Relations

The treaty created resentment in Germany and failed to secure lasting peace, contributing to tensions that led to World War II.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Aims of Hitler's Foreign Policy

Hitler aimed to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, expand German territory (Lebensraum), and destroy communism.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Withdrawal from the League of Nations (1933)

Hitler removed Germany from the League to avoid restrictions and pursue his expansionist policies without interference.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Rearmament (1935)

Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by increasing Germany's army beyond 100,000 men, reintroducing conscription, and developing an air force (Luftwaffe).

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935)

A deal between Britain and Germany allowing Germany to build a navy up to 35% of Britain's size, undermining the Treaty of Versailles.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936)

German troops entered the demilitarized Rhineland, violating the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pact; Britain and France did not act.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)

An alliance between Germany and Italy, strengthening fascist cooperation in Europe and encouraging aggression.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Anti-Comintern Pact (1936-1937)

An agreement between Germany, Italy, and Japan to oppose communism and the Soviet Union, forming the Axis Powers.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Anschluss with Austria (1938)

Hitler pressured Austria into unification with Germany, violating the Treaty of Versailles, while Britain and France did nothing.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Sudeten Crisis and Munich Agreement (1938)

Hitler demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, and Britain and France appeased him by allowing its annexation in the Munich Agreement.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Invasion of Czechoslovakia (March 1939)

Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia, proving Hitler was not just reclaiming German-speaking lands but expanding aggressively.

[Hitler's foreign policy and its role in causing war] Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939)

A non-aggression agreement between Germany and the USSR, secretly agreeing to divide Poland between them, enabling Hitler to invade without Soviet opposition.