Euro AP Review

Humanism

Humanism

Literary and linguistic movement in an attempt to revive classical Latin during the 15th & 16th Centuries

Individualism

Ideology that stressed the goals, desires, and moral worth of the individual

Secularism

The process of becoming more concerned with material, worldly, temporal things and less with spiritual and religious things; a characteristic of the Italian Renaissance and not the Northern Renaissance.

Petrarch

One of Europe's great lyric poets, "Father of the Renaissance" and Italian vernacular language

Lorenzo Valla

Italian humanist, rhetorician, educator and Catholic priest. Challenged the Catholic Church on the Donation of Constantine even though he was a devoted Catholic through textual evidence.

Marsilio Ficino

Italian who was an ardent supporter for a revival of Platonic philosophy during the Renaissance that connected Plato's ideas with Christian philosophy.

Pico della Mirandola

A prominent Italian intellect, wrote Ovation on the Dignity of Man.

Civic Humanism

An ideology celebrated by many rich merchants in Italian city-states that preached public virtue and serving one's state for the greater good. i.e. Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean Bodin, Baldassare Castligione

Leonardo Bruni

A humanist, writer of the New Cicero

Niccolo Machiavelli (The Prince)

Florentine diplomat and Republican, sent into exile after Medici family returned to power, wrote The Prince that defined Renaissance political power.

Treaty of Lodi

A peaceful, 40 year era in Italy after 50 years of warfare, created alliance system (Milan, Florence and Naples versus Venice and the Papacy)

Jean Bodin

A political theorist who advocated for the ideas of Absolutism.

Secular Absolutism

Theory that proposes a government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.). First type of government to control the sovereign state. i.e. Suggested by political philosophers like Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin

Baldassare Castiglione

Italian writer who wrote The Book of the Courtier, a popular handbook among aristocrats in Italy for many centuries describing the attributes of a perfect courtier.

Francesco Guicciardini

A great historian who wrote history to teach lessons due to his background in government.

Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450, it used metal movable type and greatly increased the production of books and the subsequent spread of ideas.

Vernacular

The everyday language of a region as distinguished from the language used for special purposes. During the Renaissance there was a large growth in language and writing in the vernacular in opposition to Latin.

Italian Renaissance

"rebirth" of Greco-Roman civilization from 1350-1550, which started in Florence and moved onto Rome. Focused on secularism and the human potential. Art tended to use bright colors, perspective, balance and classical themes.

Patronage

In the early renaissance, powerful urban groups such as guilds or confraternities would commission works of art. Later, wealthy individuals and rulers would sponsor art. It showed wealth, power, and was a status symbol to be a patron of the arts. i.e. Medici Family, Fugger Family.

Man of Virtu

A humanist idea that the ideal person was based upon a more secular and individualist value system resulting in the perfect man, "Renaissance Man".

Raphael

Italian painter and architect, known for his work School of Athens.

Michelangelo

Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, known for painting the Sistine Chapel and creating the Statue of David.

Donato di Donatello

Italian sculptor, created life-size statue David, shown with the head of Goliath at his feet.

Leon Battista Alberti

One of the greatest architects of the 15th Century and first and most important theorist of the Italian Renaissance. First to understand and study Roman Architecture and apply to Renaissance.

Filipo Brunelleschi

Italian architect, designed the Dome of the Duomo and the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence.

Geometric Perspective

During the Renaissance, Italian painters sought to create a kind of naturalism in the artwork. The use of a vanishing point and attempt to make a two-dimensional painting appear three-dimensional.

Chiaroscuro

The treatment of light and shade in a work of art, especially to give an illusion of depth.

Northern Renaissance

More concerned with theology and personal morality, Cultural and intellectual movement of northern Europe; began later than Italian Renaissance c. 1450; centered in France, Low Countries, England, and Germany; featured greater emphasis on religion than Italian Renaissance.

Jan Van Eyck

Flemish painter who was a founder of the Flemish school of painting and pioneered modern techniques of oil painting. Perfected oil painting, wood panel paintings (religious symbolism), and had great detail in his works. Famous works include the Ghent Alter Piece and Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride.

Pieter Brugel the Elder

A painter and print-maker who was isolated from Italian influences and usually painted ordinary scenes like villages and peasants (genre scenes).

Albrecht Durer

German artist who visited Italy in the late 1400s. He was the foremost Northern Renaissance artist, and specialized in the woodcut technique. He mastered proportions, perspective, realism, and modeling. Painted numerous self-portraits.

Mannerism

An artistic reaction against the Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, and realistic use of color. Artist rebelled against this by using unnatural colors while shapes were elongated or otherwise exaggerated.

Baroque

Style of art and architecture developed in Europe from about 1550-1700, emphasizing dramatic, curving forms, elaborate ornamentation, and overall balance of disparate parts in order to promote stature and power. Art displayed religious themes, red and gold color schemes, dark vs. light, and was intensely dramatic. Most closely associated with Catholicism as part of the Counter Reformation.

El Greco

Greek artist who did most of his greatest work in Spain, Perhaps the greatest of the Mannerists with his use of elongated figures and unnatural pigments, famous works include the Burial of Count Orgaz and Toledo.

Gian Bernini

Baroque artist known for creating the sculpture St. Teresa of Avila.

Peter Paul Rubens

The most famous Baroque artist who studied Michelangelo. He took Renaissance style to the next level of drama, motion, color, religion and animation. He is also known for painting full figured women.

Scientific Revolution

The emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, medicine, and chemistry transformed views of society and nature.

Nicholas Copernicus

Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a heliocentric model of the universe, which placed the sun at the center rather than the Earth.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian who provided more evidence for heliocentrism and questioned if the heavens really were perfect. He invented a new telescope, studied the sky, and published what he discovered. Because his work provided evidence that the Bible was wrong he was arrested and ended up on house arrest for the rest of his life.

Sir Issac Newton

British scientist, who articulated the laws of motion and gravity and tied together the works of Galileo and Copernicus (end of Scientific Revolution). His logical system of the universe will inspire the logic and reason on the Enlightenment.

Helio-Centric View

System meaning the sun is at the center of the solar system, which is the accepted model of the solar system of the day.

Ptolemy

The greatest astronomer of antiquity, who lived in the second century C.E.

William Harvey

Discovered the circulation of blood and the role of the heart in propelling it. He developed an accurate theory of how the heart and circulatory system operated.

Galen

A Greek physician who created a pre-plague medicinal theory based on his observations; there are four systems in the body connected to a particular organ blood (heart), yellow bile (liver), black bile (spleen), and phlegm (brain) and all must be kept in balance.

Scientific Method

A logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem; including making observations, testing hypotheses, and developing theories. Francis Bacon (inductive reasoning) and Rene Descartes (deductive reasoning) were major proponents of its usage.

Francis Bacon

English politician and writer, advocated that new knowledge was acquired through an inductive reasoning process called empiricism. He rejected the medieval view of knowledge based on tradition.

Rene Descartes

A French mathematician, philosopher, and scientist who is considered the father of analytic geometry and the founder of modern nationalism. "I think, therefore I am."

Alchemy & Astrology

Some scientist of this new era still held onto these beliefs. i.e. Medieval chemistry especially the attempt to change common metals into gold / a pseudoscience claiming divination by the positions of the planets, sun, moon

Johannes Kepler

A German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution and best know for the eponymous law of planetary motion.

Christian Humanism

A branch of humanism associated with northern Europe. Like their Italian counterparts, the Christian humanists closely studied classical texts. However, they also sought to give humanism a specifically Christian content committed to religious piety and institutional reform. i.e. Erasmus, Sir Thomas More.

Lay Piety

The belief that there was an interior sense of direct presence and love of God. Devotional and mystical works were written to teach laypersons how to feel repentance.

Erasmus

Popularized the reform program of Christian Humanism, most influential of Christian Humanist; emphasized inner piety and deemphasized external sources of religion; wrote The Praise of Folly.

Sir Thomas More

Lord Chancellor of England, became an intimate friend of Erasmus; despite governmental career had spiritual and intellectual interest; wrote Utopia an account of an idealistic life on an imaginary island.

Juan Luis Vives

The Spaniard who wrote Instructions on the Christian Woman and held belief that a women's sphere should be restrained to the home.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th Century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant Churches.

Martin Luther (95 Theses)

A German monk who wrote 95 Theses and started the Protestant Reformation. He believed that people did not need priests to interpret the Bible for them.

Indulgences

A practice by the Roman Catholic Church where one could buy years out of purgatory with money. There was a large campaign in 1517. It contributed to the distrust of the Roman Catholic Church prior to the Protestant Reformation.

Simony

The buying of church offices and then selling them for profit. It contributed to the distrust of the Roman Catholic Church prior to the Protestant Reformation.

John Calvin (Geneva)

An influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He emphasized the teaching and belief of Predestination and took up his ministry in Geneva.

Anabaptist

A Protestant sect that wanted complete separation of church and state in Protestant Reformation. Government should not exercise power over real Christians; advertised adult rather than infant baptism (radical reformers)

Priesthood of All Believers

All people were equally capable of understanding God's word as expressed in the Bible and can gain salvation without the help of intermediaries. One does not need a priest endowed with special powers or an interceding church. Many protestant faiths belief this idea while the Roman Catholic Church opposes.

Primacy of Scripture

Martin Luther's belief that one does not need church doctrine and rituals to understand God's words as expressed in the Bible.

The Elect (Calvinist)

The name given in Calvinist theology to the group of people who have been predestined by God for salvation.

Salvation of Faith Alone

Martin Luther's concept that faith alone is enough to bring salvation.

Protestant Work Ethic

Calvinist later emphasized the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that God was pleased.

Catholic Reformation

Religious reform movement within the Latin Christian Church, begun in response to the Protestant Reformation. It clarified Catholic theology and reformed clerical training and discipline.

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

A place of meeting where a group of cardinals, bishops, and theologians met and reaffirmed Catholic Doctrine and started the Catholic Reformation from 1545-1563.

Society of Jesus

Known as Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola; determined to carry the Catholic banner and fight against Protestantism.

Saint Teresa of Avila

She became a nun and impressed the King of Spain. She founded a strict new order of nuns and travelled all over Spain establishing convents.

Ursulines

A religious order founded by Angela Merici and provided religious and educational training; approved by Pope Paul III.

Roman Inquisition

Persecution against those who did not follow the strict Roman Catholic faith. In Spain, persecution of "Moriscos" (Christian Moors) and Christian Jews who were suspected of backsliding to original faith. In Italy, Pope Paul IV issued a papal bull accusing Jews of killing Christ and ordering that Jews be placed in Ghettos in the Papal States.

Index of Prohibited Books

In 1557 Pope Paul IV created a list, which all Roman Catholics were prohibited from reading or owning. It would not be abolished till 1966.

Faith & Good Works

The reaffirmation of traditional Roman Catholic Church doctrine after the Council of Trent.

Book of Common Prayer

Written by Thomas Canmer, one of King Henry VIII's spiritual advisors in the break with the Roman Catholic Church. This book was imposed on all English churches and helped establish a moderate Protestant doctrine in England.

Huguenots

The 16th and 17th Century term for Protestants living in France.

Puritans

Calvinism sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization included many from the English nobility wishing to challenge the authority of the English monarch. Development of this group would eventually led to religious tension in England vs. Anglicans and the English Civil War.

French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

Fought between the Catholic League and the Huguenots from 1562-1598. The wars were urged on by the Roman Catholic Church, as King Henry II and successors fought for control. The country became increasingly divided as a result. Henry IV eventually ends the conflict.

Catherine De Medici

Wife of Henry II of France. She acted as regent during the reign of her three weak and ineffective sons - Francs II, Charles IX, and Henry III.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

A massacre of Huguenots in August 1572. Three thousand were killed in Paris. The King was persuaded a large wedding was threat to his power and kills the Huguenots.

War of the Three Henrys

The last conflict in France's religious wars. It began when Henry III issued an edict outlawing Protestantism and annulled Henry of Navarre's right to the throne.

Henry IV

Political leader of the Huguenots and member of the Bourbon Dynasty. He supported politiques ideology and realized that as a protestant, Catholic France would never accept him. He converted in order to become king. He passed the Edict of Nantes

Edict of Nantes (1598) revoked (1648)

A royal decree; which established the principle of religious toleration in France, proclaimed in 1598 and revoked in 1685.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

In 1555 it gave each German prince the right to determine the religion of his state (Catholicism or Lutheranism) based on "cuius region, eius religio" (whose religion, his religion).

Gustavus Adolphus

Protestant who revived Sweden and revolutionized national army (drafts, arrow volleys, and versatility) and took part in second phase of the Thirty Years' War.

Charles I/V

Hapsburg ruler of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor who defended the Hapsburg lands against the Ottomans. A staunch Catholic, he fought against Protestants and Martin Luther.

Defenestration of Prague

The hurling, by Protestants, of Catholic officials from a castle window and setting off the Thirty Years' War.

Thirty Years War

Conflict over religion and territory and power among European ruling families. Phase 1: Hapsburg armies in Austria and Spain crush Protestants. Czech leaders executed. Phase 2: Protestants side with Gustavus Adolphus and push south. Phase 3: Remaining years dominated by French and other Europeans but not necessarily on strict religious lines. (1618-1648)

Peace of Westphalia

1648 Ended the Thirty Years War; recognized Dutch Independence, extended terms of the Peace of Augsburg to Calvinists, weakened the authority of the Holy Roman Empire; turning point in European political, religious, social history

Religious Pluralism

A few states, such as France with the Edict of Nantes, allowed religious pluralism in order to maintain domestic peace. The condition in which one or more religions coexist either as complementary to each other or as competing systems. Others include Poland and Netherlands

Mercantilism

The belief that the total volume of trade as unchangeable and focused on the role of state in trade, dominated economic practices in the 17th Century.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

The controller of general finances in France; believed the wealth and economy of France should rigorously support the monarchy and applied mercantilism to France.

Navigational Technology

Potolani, the use of a Lateen Sail, Compass and Astrolabe all contributed to the exploration of the world in the 15th and 16th Centuries by Europeans.

Asiento (1543-1834)

The organized slave trade from Africa to the Americas. First organized by the Portuguese in 1543 and later adopted by many European colonial empires. It lasted until 1834 when it was finally abolished.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Decision by the Pope in 1494 to divide the New World into separate Portuguese and Spanish spheres of influence.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, disease, people and technologies between the New World and Old World after 1492.

Middle Passage

A series of routes that slave ships used to transport slaves from West Africa to the Americas. Approximately 11million slaves were transported between 1500-1850.

Planter Society

Stretching from the Chesapeake Bay to Brazil and in other parts of the world that produced crops, especially sugar, cotton and tobacco using slave labor on large estates.

Joint Stock Companies

A company in which individuals bought shares in companies and received dividends on their investments, made it easier to raise large amounts of capital.

Double-Entry Banking

A system of bookkeeping with two columns, one with debits and the other with assets. There would be a running total that was comparable at any time.

Bank of Amsterdam

1609, deposit and transfer institution, played an important role in Dutch joint-stock companies.