Human Bio Systems test

What are the functions of the lymphatic system?

Recovery of fluid lost in capillaries and Defence against pathogens.

How is fluid lost in capillaries?

The high pressure in the blood capillaries cause some plasma to be forced through the capillaries as they are porous.

How is fluid recovered and returned?

Fluids are collected by lymph capillaries, where now the fluid is called lymph.

What is lymph?

Fluid that is returned to the circulatory system via lymphatic system. Lymph contains cell debris, foreign particles and micro-organisms.

Does lymph circulate in a loop?

No, it does not as the lymphatic system is one-way, where the lymph is going away from the tissue and towards ducts that empty lymph into veins in the upper chest.

What is the structure of Lymph capillaries?

-Blind ended (Closed off)
-Slightly larger than blood capillaries
-More permeable than blood capillaries
-A network of lymph capillaries connect to Lymph vessels

-Valves

How do lymph capillaries move lymph?

The contraction of muscles outside the lymph capillary and valves that prevent backflow of lymph helps the lymph to move through the body.

What is the structure of a lymph node?

A bean shaped structure that contains:
-Connective tissue
-Lymphoid tissue which contain Macrophages, lymphocytes and plasma cells. (Helps with immunity)

Where are lymph nodes found?

neck, armpits, groin, and alimentary canal

How does the lymphatic system help with the defence against diseases?

Inside the lymph nodes, there are leucocytes(Macrophages and lymphocytes) in the Lymphoid tissue which destroys pathogens.

Why does the lymph node swell when someone is sick?

When an infection occurs, the formation of lymphocytes increases, causing lymph nodes to become swollen.

When can blood transfusion occur?

When a person is suffering from:
-excessive blood loss
-Diseases such as leukaemia, anaemia, haemophilia etc.

What is blood transfusion?

Involves blood or components of blood from a donor to be injected into a patient's bloodstream.

Describe what Whole Blood Transfusion is and when it is used.

Whole blood that has a chemical that is added to prevent blood clotting and is used when patient has severe blood loss.

Describe what Red Cell Concentrates Transfusion is and when it is used.

Blood containing only erythrocytes by being separated from the blood and is used when a patient has Anemia.

Describe what Platelet Concentrates Transfusion is and when it is used

Platelets portion of blood is removed from blood and is used when a patient has abnormal platelets or a reduced amount of platelets due to cancer or autoimmune conditions.

Describe what Plasma Transfusion is and when it is used.

Plasma portion of blood is separated from blood and is used when a patient need extra clotting factors.

Describe what Cryoprecipitate Transfusion is and when it is used.

Plasma that is frozen then is thawed slowly where once thawed, it contains clotting substances and is used for when a patient has Haemophilia or severe bleeding

Describe how and where Immunoglobin Transfusion occurs

Immunoglobins are a group of proteins that act as antibodies and is used for patients that are deficient in antibodies or have no immunity to diseases

Describe what Autologus Transfusion is and when it is used.

When a patient's own blood is used and occurs during elective surgeries.

Why is it important for the blood group of the donor to match with that of the patient?

The mixing of incompatible blood types can cause the erythrocytes to clump together (agglutinate).

What is an antigen?

Any substance that is capable of stimulating an immune response from the body-resulting in the formation of a protein called an antibody.
The surface of erythrocytes contain antigens that reacts with specific antibodies in plasma
This is the basis for classifications of blood groups

What are the two mains antigens that can be present on the surface of erythrocytes.

Antigen A and Antigen B. A person have only one, both or neither.

If there are Anti-B-antibodies, what antigen is present?

A-Antigen is present

If there are Anti-A-antibodies, what antigen is present?

B-Antigen is present

If there are no anti-antibodies present then what antigens are present?

A and B antigens are present

If both anti-A and anti-B antibodies are present, then what antigens are present?

None

What is the Rh blood group?

The grouping that is based on another set of antigens that are present of the surface of erythrocytes. Those with these antigens are Rh positive and those without are Rh negative.

What are the nostrils?

The two small openings leading to the nasal passages. They are the only openings used during non-strenuous ventilation.

What is the function of the nasal passages?

Transports air from nostrils to the respiratory tract. It contains hairs that filters out particles from the air and produces mucus to trap these particles from entering the respiratory tract.

How is air warmed in these nasal passages?

Capillaries lining the passages and mucus warms and humidifies the air before going down to the lungs.

What is the oral cavity?

An opening larger than the nostrils which allows for ventilation of a larger volume of air during strenuous activity.

What is the epiglottis?

a flap that closes during swallowing and opens during respiration. It prevents food or water from entering the trachea.

What is the pharynx?

The passage that is considered the 'throat", where it branches into the trachea (Respiratory) and Esophagus (Digestive)

What is the larynx?

The first part of the trachea, it is also known as the voice box. The largest cartilage ring of the trachea helps form the larynx where it created the "Adam's apple".

What other structures are in the larynx?

thyroid glands and vocal cords.

What are the vocal cords?

Two flaps that vibrate when they are pushed together while exhaling which creates a sound within the voice box. This process is called phonation.

What is the trachea?

A tube that carries air to and from the lungs. The trachea is always kept open, this is done by the rings cartilage.

What types of cells line the trachea?

-Epithelial cells: Contains hair like projections called cilia.
-Goblet cells: Cells in between epithelial cells that secrete mucus that coats the cilia.
The mucus traps particles in the air and the cilia sweep the particles away for the spiting or swallowing of the mucus.

What does the trachea branch into?

Two tubes called the bronchi.

what are the left and right bronchus?

The first and main respiratory tubes that branch into the lungs. They also contain cartilage that keep the bronchus open.

What are the left and right lungs?

The organ that contains numerous tubes and air sacs that perform gas exchange. Each lung contain a different amount of lobes, the left contains two and the right contains three.

what is the dent in the left lung called and what purpose does it serve?

The cardiac notch in the left lung makes room for the heart that is places slightly to the left in the body. However, this results in the decreasing of lung size on the left.

What are the bronchioles?

Smaller airways that repeatedly branch until they reach the respiratory zone, where the alveoli are located. Where gas exchange occurs. The bronchioles don't have cartilage but instead have muscular walls to support it.

what are the alveoli?

tiny air sacs in the lungs that are 1 cell thick. Gas exchange occurs across the alveolar membrane and the capillary wall. there are around 300 million alveoli in each lung creating a large surface area for gas exchange.

What do the capillaries on the alveoli serve to do?

The pulmonary capillaries supply the alveoli with deoxygenated blood and carry away oxygenated blood.

What is the diaphragm?

The muscle that is attached to the bottom of the lungs. It divides the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.

What are the intercostal muscles?

Muscles located between the ribs and are responsible for moving the ribcage up and down during respiration.
There are two types of intercostal muscles:
-external
-internal

What is the purpose of the ribcage?

Bones of the ribcage help protect the lungs and heart from physical damage.

What are the pleural membranes?

The membranes that protect the lungs from friction during ventilation. Between the membranes is the pleural cavity where there is a fluid which will decrease friction when rubbing occurs.

Describe the mechanism of Exhalation

The air pressure in the lungs is made greater than that of outside the lungs by the intercostal muscles relaxing and lowering the lungs for a decrease in lung volume. The diaphragm also relaxes into a dome shape which pushes the lungs up to also decrease lung volume. Exhalation requires no effort.

Describe the mechanism of Inhalation

The air pressure in the lungs is made lesser than that of outside the lungs by the intercostal muscles contracting and lifting the lungs for an increase in lungs volume. The diaphragm also contracts which causes it to flatten to pull the lungs downwards to increase lung volume. Inhalation requires effort.

Explain why and how air pressure needs to increase during exhalation.

When lung volume decreases, the pressure in the lungs increases. This causes gases to move with the concentration gradient, meaning air will move from inside to outside.

Explain why and how air pressure needs to decrease during inhalation.

When lung volume increases, the pressure in the lung decreases. This causes gases to move with the concentration gradient, meaning air will move from outside to inside.

How does forced exhalation occur?

Ribcage needs to be lowered and also pulled downward and inwards even further to squeeze the chest.

What do the external and internal intercostal muscles do to allow ventilation?

External:
-Contracts to lift up ribcage
Internal:
-Relaxes to pull ribcage downwards

What are some factors that affect a persons total lung capacity?

-body size(taller)
-gender(men)
-athletes
-non-smokers
-younger adults
-people living in higher altitudes

What is residual volume?

the air that remains in the lungs no matter how hard a person tries to exhale it. This exists because airways never collapse meaning there will always be trapped air.

What is vital capacity?

The maximum amount of air that a person can move into or out of the lungs during forceful breathing.

What is tidal volume?

Tidal volume is the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs with each respiratory cycle.

What is expiratory/ inspiratory reserve volume?

The maximum amount of air a person can add/expel from the lungs after inhalation and exhalation respectively.

What is gas exchange?

The process for exchanging oxygen for carbon dioxide gases between the alveoli and capillaries (Brought by the pulmonary arteries).

Why is there carbon dioxide in deoxygenated blood?

Blood returning from the body are deoxygenated as the tissues of the cells have used the oxygen in the process of cellular respiration. This means blood is high in carbon dioxide as CO2 is a by-product of cellular respiration.

How is oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged in the alveoli?

Gas exchange occurs because the concentration differences between the alveoli and capillaries. Oxygen will diffuse into blood capillaries and CO2 will diffuse into alveoli. (Along the concentration gradient)

What happens after blood in capillaries are oxygenated?

Blood will be returned into the left atrium via pulmonary veins so the blood can be transported throughout the body.

What factors in the structures of the lungs relate to it's function?

-moist
-thin
-large surface area
-highly vascular w/ continuous blood flow
-method of ventilation

How does the lung being moist help with it's function?

gasses can only diffuse across cell membranes if they are dissolved in fluid, thus cells in alveoli secrete fluid to allow diffusion. The lungs are also located deep inside the body to minimise evaporation of the fluid.

How does the lung being thin help with it's function?

Minimises the distance gases have to travel during diffusion, making the process more efficient. Both alveoli and capillary walls are only one cell thick.

How does the lung having a large surface area help with it's function?

Each lung has approximately 300 million alveoli, giving a large surface area for an increase in the rate at which diffusion occurs.

How does the lung being vascular and having continuous blood flow help with it's function?

Each alveolus (Single alveoli) area surrounded by 1000 capillaries which have continuous blood flow. These features allow for blood to be in contact with alveoli and maintains the concertation gradient of the gasses.

How does the method of ventilation in the lung help with it's function?

The act of the respiratory muscles ensures old air is being replenished with new air. Ventilation also maintains the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

What are the causes of Emphysema?

-Smoking
-Second hand smoke
-Chemical fumes/pollution

What are the effects of Emphysema?

Irritation causes damage to alveoli and cause them to lose their elasticity where tissue is destroyed which results in a decrease in SA.

What are the symptoms of Emphysema?

Shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, tightness in chest, fatigue, excessive mucous and cyanosis(Blue tinge to lips ect.)

What are the treatments for Emphysema?

Emphysema cannot be cured and reversed. Treatments only manage symptoms.
-Stop smoking
-oxygen therapy
-Bronchodilators

What is Lung cancer?

When abnormal cells grow and multiply in an uncontrolled way, forming tumours.

What are the causes of Lung cancer?

-Smoking
-Second hand smoke
-exposure to asbestos
-exposure to radioactive gas
-exposure to occupational substances (Arsenic, cadmium ect.)

What are the symptoms of Lung cancer?

-Shortness of breath
-Changes to voice (Hoarseness)
-Chest pain
-coughing and spitting up blood
-A cough that doesn't go away
-unexplained weight loss
-loss of appetite
-Tiredness

What are the treatments for Lung cancer?

-surgery
-chemotherapy
-radiation
-immunotherapy

What are the causes of Lung infections?

-virus
-bacteria
-fungus

What parts of the lungs do Lung infections affect?

Affects the bronchi (bronchitis), bronchioles(bronchiolitis) or alveoli(pneumonia)

What are the symptoms of Lungs infections?

-Cough with thick mucus
-chest pain
-fever
-shortness of breath
-wheezing
-fatigue

What are the treatments for Lung infections?

-Antibiotics (Only bacterial infections)
-pain killers
-Anti-inflammatories

What are the effects of Asthma?

Bronchioles become inflamed, narrowed, swollen and produce extra mucus which makes it even more difficult to breathe.

What are the triggers of Asthma?

Allergies, air pollution and other airborne irritants, respiratory infection, exercise or physical activity, weather and air temperature, strong emotions and some emotions. (Varies from person to person)

What are the symptoms of Asthma?

-shortness of breath
-chest tightness or pain
-Wheezing when exhaling
-Trouble sleeping

What are the treatment for Asthma?

Bronchodilators (Inhalers) which contain steroids that make the bronchioles dilate to allow for more air to enter the lungs.

What is the alimentary canal?

the whole passage along which food passes through the body from mouth to anus. It includes the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.

What are the main roles of the digestive system?

-Ingestion of food and water
-Transportation of food
-Mechanical and chemical digestion of food
-Absorption of digested food and water
-Elimination of wastes

What are the two types of digestion?

Mechanical:
-Physical breakdown of food into smaller particles
Chemical:
-Chemical breakdown of food using enzymes and acids into the chemically smallest units

What is saliva?

watery liquid secreted into the mouth by glands. It contains amylase (Digestive enzyme) to start the breakdown of carbohydrates and starches. (Chemical digestion).

What are the main functions of the saliva?

Starch digestion
Antibodies to kill germs
Lubricate passage of food
Initiate taste receptors

What are the teeth?

used for the mechanical processing of foods

What is the oesophagus?

A double layer of muscle made from circular muscle and longitudinal muscle. The movement of food is maintained by the secretion of the mucus from the epithelial lining of the oesophagus.

What is the process of peristalsis?

Waves of contractions of circular muscle bands that move and push food down the oesophagus, stomach and intestines.

What types of muscle are present in the stomach?

Circular, longitudinal and oblique muscles make up the stomach which mechanically churns food into chyme.

What enzyme is mainly in the stomach and what does it do?

Pepsin (Gastric protease) is secreted by the gastric glands, which are held in long narrow tubes called gastric pits that line the stomach. Pepsin is mainly concerned with protein digestion

Why is hydrochloric acid (HCl) secreted in the stomach?

HCl (Hydrogen chloride) is secreted in the gastric glands to help enzyme break down food and it also activates pepsin. Special mucus lining is present in the stomach to protect itself from gastric juices (HCl & enzymes).

What are the two functions of the small intestine?

Completion of digestion and absorption of nutrients into blood.

What fluids are used to complete digestion?

Pancreatic juice, Bile and intestinal juice.