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HEGEMONY
Antonio Gramsci
Dominance of ruling class whose views become the accepted norm
SYMBOLIC CAPITAL
Pierre Bourdieu
Certain communicative behaviour are considered more prestigious and those associated are offered more social advantages. Social power, dominance and subordination are maintained through language construction (gatekeeping).
LEGITIMATION
Van Leeuwen
“Hegemonic processes undertaken to persuade other groups to their view of reality and secure their consent to rule.”
List the 4 legitimation strategies
Rationalisation (reasoning, logic)
Authorisation (credibility, authority)
Moral legitimation (ethics, values which encode ideology)
Mythopoesis (stories and narratives, constructing hypotheticals)
DELEGITIMATION
Ross and Rivers
Definition of a nation by Anderson, 1991
an “imagined community” produced by circulated print which bestows on people a shared experience and ideology
spatial identity quote by Barnes, 2000
who we are is inextricably linked to where we are, have been, or are going
spatial identity quote by Benwell and Stokoe, 2006
spaces make people by offering them opportunities to craft their identity
Martha’s Vineyard
Labov, 1963
island off the coast of Massachusetts
locals adjusted pronunciation of vowels through high centralisations to distinguish themselves as the native in-group
Australian skateboarder and coach
Arisa Trew’s coach gave her some wise words of advice before her Olympic final: “Skibidi sigma”. The nouns phrase may have seemed like a string of nonse words to you and I, but Trew heard those words and went on to win the Olympic gold. Trew said, “It’s like a joke that I have with all my friends…”
sense of solidarity that pushed her to win the gold
sigma: repurposed Greek letter that means a cool person
skibidi: non-lexical vocable, neh-neh-ni-poo-poo, na-na na-na boo-boo
socialisation quote by Liebkind, 1999
“At this stage of life, young people develop active memberships in peer groups acting no longer as individuals but as carriers of common characteristics of their social groups.”
socialisation quotes by Lemke, 2002
“High school becomes the primary setting for accumulation of identity resources that can instantiate larger-scale stereotypes for gender-, class-, age-, and culture-specific identities.”
department stores
Labov 1964
went to three department stores that catered to three socioeconomic groups: Saks, Macy’s and S. Klein
studied how employees pronounced the NP “fourth floor”, in particular the pronunciation of the post-vocalic /r/
Spiaking Singlish
Gwee Li Sui
Singlish as an unmarked vernacular to a stylised register, to demonstrate that one is of higher class
Singlish being iconised and politicised into a register for resistance and discursive activism after the SGEM
Singlishisms: “cheemest”, “cheem” (Hokkien loanword ‘deep’) inflected with superlative ‘-est’ suffix
words of non-English origin meshed into English morphologies
“macam apples and oranges” idiomatic expression used alongside Malay loanword “macam” (akin to)
performance of a marked Singlish, boasting already a certain sophistication in phrasing that speaks to ther craft as a professional writer
commodified for the western gaze, whereas monolectal locals may find it off-putting and unnatural
features of AAVE
absence of copula verb “be”
invariant “be” to signal recurring/habitual actions
multiple negation
consonant cluster simplification
slang terms like hella, turnt, aite
Language as Social Facts
Ferdinand de Saussure, 1916
Interpellation
Louis Althusser
mechanism by which the human subject is constructed by pre-existing social norms or state apparatus
Advertising’s 15 Basic Appeals
Jib Fowles, 1998
for sex, for affiliation, to nurture, for guidance, to aggress, to achieve, to dominate, for attention, for prominence, for autonomy, to escape, to feel safe, for aesthetic sensations, to satisfy curiosity, psychological needs
Discursive Production of Subject
Michel Foucault
identities inscribed in discourses operate to reproduce social inequalities, to preserve the status quo
Habitus
Pierre Bourdieu
Labels of Primary Potency
Gordon Allport
reductionist and essentialist, salient and powerful social labels that describe groups seen as different from the mainstream, causing them to lose their individuality
Verbal Hygiene
Deborah Cameron
Euphemism Treadmill
Steven Pinker
Adam and Eve quote
Stanley, 1975
“the documents that we have were written by men for the edification of other men, and, as such, they deal with male concerns from a male point of view”
“the standard-bearer of male linguistic prerogative has been Adam. Adam, the husband of Eve, you’ll remember, has been credited with the naming of the animals”
Deficient Model
Lakoff, 1973
Dominance Model
Zimmerman and West, 1975
the incidence of interruptions are much higher and more uniformly distributed across the male-female segments than proves to be the case for the same-sex transcripts
Difference Model
Tannen, 1990
report talk (men) vs rapport talk (women)
The whole woman: Sex and gender differences in variation
Eckert, 1997
Boys obtain prestige through achievements, and girls, through constructing and displaying socially acceptable persona, utilising language as one such means
Women, Men and Politeness
Holmes, 1995
extention of Lakoff’s, considering broad contextual factors and functions of politeness with relation to socialisation and habitus
Gender Performativity
Butler, 1990
“Gender is the repeated stylisation of the body, a set of repeated acts within a highly rigid regulatory frame that conceal over time to produce the appearance of substance, a natural sort of being.”
Examples of semantic change of gendered words
Master vs Mistress
Spinster vs Bachelor
Gendered morphology
Grammatical gender marking of nouns, with the male being the unmarked, default/normal form
He/him/his as the default resumptive pronoun
Honorific-related gender issues
distinctions in honourifics based on women’s marital status but not men’s
lack of use of honourifics when referring to women in professional settings
Communicative Competence
Dell Hymes
To be a functional member of the community, knowing the language means more than just knowing how to pronounce grammatical utterances
Social constructionist approach to language
Language is not so much the agent of construction as it is a
reflection of our membership of social categories
contribution to the construction of our social identity (i.e. we are the agents)