ap psychology exam

11th ap psychology

motivation

• a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal

• effects that influence the behavior is based on initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence

extrinsic motivation

• a desire to perform behavior because of promised rewards or threats of punishment

• behaviors will not be effectively sustained once the reward is removed

• ex: working for a salary

intrinsic motivation

• a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner

• tends to result in higher achievement than extrinsic motivation

• ex: studying to improve knowledge

overjustification effect

when you're rewarded for things that you already enjoy doing, the intrinsic motivation goes away

instinct theory

• human behavior is guided by innate biological instincts

• ex: imprinting

instinct

a fixed pattern that occurs without learning

drive-reduction theory

• assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal tensions (drives) to push organism towards satisfying need, thus reducing tension and arousal

• physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis

• primary drives: food, water

• secondary drives: money

incentive theory

• positive or negative stimuli that push/pull us toward a goal

• behavior is guided by the lure of reward and/or threat of punishment

• ex: offering a donut, getting points

arousal theory

• people are said to have an optimal level of tension (arousal) they seek o maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation

• yerkes-dodson law

yerkes-dodson law

• psychological arousal helps performance, but only to a certain point

• optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task

• difficult tasks = low arousal

• easy tasks = high arousal

abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs

• humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs, stating that some needs take priority over others

• higher-levels needs won't become priorities until lower-level needs have been satisfied

hunger motivation

STIM-LAT-FAT

theories of emotion

• james-lange

• cannon-bard

• schachter-singer two factor

james-lang

• physiological activity precedes the emotional experience

• stimulus -> physical reaction -> emotion

cannon-bard

emotion and physiological response simultaneously occurs

schachter-singer two factor

you feel physically aroused and able to cognitively label the arousal (appraisal)

joseph ledoux

• researcher believes that sensory information regarding emotion-evoking events moves along two separate pathways in the brain

• "fast" pathway: amygdala

• "slow" pathway: cortex

expressed emotion

• joy and sadness

• fear and anger

• surprise and anticipation

• acceptance and disgust

paul ekman

• studied facial expressions and emotions

• theorized that each basic emotion is associated with a unique facial expression

• these expressions are though to be innate and hard-wired; recognizable across cultures

• by 6 to 7 months of age, most babies exhibit facial expression for all basic emotions

facial feedback theory

emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify

type A personality

people who are more competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious...and therefore, more prone to and impacted by stress

type B personality

relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior...and therefore less impacted by stress

Central nervous system

composed of the brain and the spinal cord, both of which are composed of neurons and glial cells

• brain true core that interprets info, makes decisions, and sends commands

Spinal cord

long bundle of neurons; connects the brain to the body; also responsible for fast, life-saving reflexes

• tissues and organs to brain (afferent)

• motor impulses from brain to body's muscles and glands (efferent motor neurons)

Reflex Arc/Spinal Reflex

role of neurons in spinal cord that relate to the quick reflex reaction through the relay of info

Left hemisphere

• understanding written words

• meaning of complex relationships

• translating words into phonetic sounds

Right hemisphere

• emotional content

• picturing visual descriptions

• structure of story

• artistic writing style

Roger Sperry (1913-1994)

• studied psych and zoology

• human beings are of two minds

• two hemispheres operate independently

• won Nobel Prize (medicine)

• research helped chart brain and led to expansion of field

Michael Gazzaniga (1939-)

• worked under Roger Sperry

• understanding of functional lateralization/brain lateralization

• studied how hemispheres communicate

• professor of psych at UC Santa Barbara

Brainstem

oldest/most basic part of the brain

• contains the medulla, pons, and reticular formation

• automatic survival function

• Sends and receives info

Medulla

• responsible for controlling respiratory and cardiovascular systems

• life-supporting functions: respiration, digestion, heartbeat, blood pressure

Pons

links medulla and cerebellum to upper portions of the brain

• coordinate movement, especially left-body influences...

• (deep) sleep

• respiratory functions- breathing rate

• sensory analysis damage could cause movement (thrashing) during deep sleep

Reticular formation

controls an organism's level of alertness/arousal impacts state of consciousness

Cerebellum

"little brain"

• helps coordinate voluntary movements, as well as balance and sense of equilibrium

• impacts attention

Limbic system

thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus

• regulate emotion, memory, and motivation

Thalamus

sensory switchboard

• all sensory information except smell can pass through

• contributes to processes (timing, attention, movement, etc.)

• helps regulate alertness and arousal relays info to proper areas of cerebral cortex damage can cause blending of senses ex: synesthesia

Hypothalamus

controls autonomic functions

• hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual activity

• fight-or-flight- release of hormones- working with pituitary gland main link between nervous and endocrine system linked w/depression, bipolar, schizophrenia

Hippocampus

formation of long-term memories

• helps us create new memories important for spatial navigation

• Greek for "seahorse" damage can cause severe memory loss

Amygdala

responsible for emotional responses, especially fear

• helps recognize facial expression of emotion associated w/anger and aggression damage ex: cannot draw what a fearful expression looks like

Cerebrum

largest and most complex part of brain: 2 hemispheres and 4 lobes

• frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital complex mental activities

Cerebral cortex

covers cerebrum- outermost part convolutions allow large surface area to be picked in limited skull 30 billion nerve cells

• gyri (gyrus) are the ridges

• sulci (sulcus) are the fissures

Frontal lobe

advanced cognitive abilities

• prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, Broca's area

Prefrontal cortex

planning, personality, memory storage, complex decision-making and areas devoted to language

Primary motor cortex

output

• controls the voluntary movement of the body's muscles by sending commands to the somatic division of the PNS

• cross-wired pattern (motor cortex in left hemisphere controls right side of body, vice versa)

Paul Broca (1824-1880)

studied brain lesions and made connection to speech/language left frontal lobe language production- Broca's area Broca's aphasia:

• comprehend speech, difficulty expressing thoughts -right-sided arm and leg weakness/paralysis bc frontal lobe important w/body movement

• may be due to issues related to muscle movement w/speech, syntax, grammar, verbal working memory

Broca's area

devoted to the production of speech

• allows ppl to speak fluently and directs muscle movements involved w/speech damage: short, meaningful phrases produced w/great effort (omits "is", "and", ""the")

Temporal lobe

sound info processing

• auditory cortex, Wernicke's area

Auditory cortex

processes sensory info from the ears dominant neural pathways are contralateral

Carl Wernicke (1848-1905)

left temporal lobe- language comprehension Wernicke's aphasia: difficulty understanding language; speech is fluent but empty, long sentences - no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new "words"

Parietal lobe

touch and sensory info processing

• also general processing like math reasoning spatial processing language and memory

Sensory cortex

input

• registers and processes pain (e.g. touch, pain, skin temp, body position in space) cross-wired pattern (left hemisphere receives right side of body info)

Occipital lobe

visual info processing

• visual cortex

Visual cortex

processes sensory info from the eyes

• not contralateral receives info from both eyes that come from the right field of division

Brain plasticity science

study of a physical process

• gray matter (neural cell bodies, axon terminals, and dendrites)

• neural connections can be forged and refined or weakened or severed

• changes in the physical brain manifest as changes in our abilities

Blood brain barrier

brain's blood vessels are lined with endothelial cells

• endothelial cells create a nearly impermeable boundary between brain and bloodstream

• barrier helps block harmful substances, such as toxins and bacteria from entering the brain

• Compounds - small and/or fat-soluble - slip through barrier without much effort

• Ex: antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications, alcohol, cocaine, hormones

• Larger molecules must be "ferried" across by transporter proteins (glucose or insulin)

Lesioning

the natural or experimental destruction of brain tissue

• an electrode passes a high frequency current through the structure

• burns and disables the targeted tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

monitors brainwave patterns produced by electrical activity on the surface of the brain surface of the brain

• EEG electrodes amplify electric potential used for: sleep research, seizure disorders, presence of tumors, active areas of brain

Computer Axial Tomography (CT scan)

utilizes computer-controlled x-rays of the brain

• gives composite representation of brain "slices"

• 3D pic of brain structure that doesn't show function used for: stroke damage, blood clots, tumors, injuries, abnormal brain structure

Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)

radio-active glucose is injected into the subject

• brain activity showed by brain's consumption of the chemical

• color coded- lighter colors=more activity used for: cancer, disease, or injury to the brain

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

uses magnetic fields and radioactive waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue- most detailed image of brain structure

• see small details or structures has revealed: larger neural area in l hemisphere of musicians w/ perfect pitch musicians

• enlarged fluid-filled brain areas in patients experiencing schizophrenia

Functional MRI

new variation on MRI tech that monitors O consumption and blood flow in the brain to identify areas of high activity

• comparison of MRI scans taken < 1 sec apart allows neuroscientists to study brain activity

Other imaging methods

DTI: builds on MRI, focuses on brain wiring, monitoring of white health matter MEG: show firing neurons, monitors changes in tiny neurons, shows order and pattern of brain activity electric stimulation (ESB): weak electrical current is sent into a brain structure in order to stimulate it- delivered by electrode, simulates normal signals in the brain TMS: permits scientists to temporarily enhance/depress activity in a specific area of brain- "virtual lesions"

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

made up of all nerves and neurons that lie outside brain and spinal cord

• allows brain and spinal cord to communicate with sensory systems and to control muscles and glands of body

PNS 2 major systems

somatic nervous system (more voluntary) and autonomic nervous system (more out of control)

Somatic Nervous System

sensory pathway- contains afferent neurons= affect

• nerves that carry messages from senses INWARD to CNS motor pathway- contains efferent neurons= effect

• nerves that carry messages from CNS OUTWARD to voluntary muscles of body

Autonomic Nervous System

more or less automatic- controls organs, glands, and involuntary muscles 2 systems: sympathetic and parasympathetic NS

Sympathetic Nervous System

middle of spinal column: reacts to stress and bodily arousal- "fight-or-flight" ex: dilates pupils, increase heartrate and breathing, stops digestion and excretion

Parasympathetic Nervous System

on either side of sympathetic division: restores body to normal functioning after arousal- "rest-and-digest" system= homeostasis ex: constricts pupils, slows heartrate and breathing, reactivates digestion and excretion, responsible for most ordinary, day-to-day bodily functions

Endocrine system

helps coordinate and integrate complex psychological reactions

Hormones

chemical substances (similar in function to neurotransmitters) that help regulate bodily functions; released directly into bloodstream by endocrine glands

• fit into receptor sites on target organs; affect behavior

• HGH (growth hormone): infancy to adulthood

Pituitary Gland

below hypothalamus, "master gland". controls or influences all other endocrine glands hormones: regulates water/salt balance, produces hormones allows normal gonad function, stimulates thyroid gland

Pineal Gland

near base of cerebrum, regulate the sleep- wake cycle horomones: melatonin, tracks day length and influences sleep patterns dysreg: disturbances in melatonin are responsible for "jet lag"

Thyroid

located inside neck and regulates metabolism hormones: thyroxin, alertness/energy level, weight dysreg: hypothyroidism (too little thyroxin)- obesity, infertility, heart disease and hyperthyroidism (too much)- weight loss, irregular heart beat

Pancreas

in deep abdomen, regulates blood-sugar hormones: insulin- regulates carbs and fat metabolism, lower blood sugar; glucagon- high blood sugar dysreg: diabetes is insufficient insulin production

Adrenal Glands

top of kidneys, secretes 30 dif hormones to deal w/stress, salt, etc. hormones: adrenaline (epinephrine) arouses body in times of stress and cortisol manages stress and release glucose to blood, increasing blood pressure dysreg: low levels=Addison's disease

Ovaries (gonads)

hormone: estrogen- responsible for development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics dysreg: osteoporosis, menopause

Testes (gonads)

hormone: testosterone- principle male sex hormone responsible for development secondary sex characteristics dysreg: low T

Nervous System

extensive network of specialized cells that carries info to and from all parts of body; body's info system

• sensory stimuli coming into brain

• brain sending info out to body, face, organs

Two major cells in NS

neurons: basic building blocks glial: neuron's support system

Neurons

individual cells; basic building block of NS 3 primary tasks: receives, integrate, and transmit info

Afferent neurons (sensory neurons)

carry info from body's tissues and sensory organs to brain and spinal cord (INWARD, Access)

Efferent neurons (motor neurons)

carry info from brain and spinal cord to tissues and sensory organs (OUTWARD, Exit)

Interneurons

CNS neurons that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs (make reflexes happen)

Axon

tube-like structure that carries the neural message away from the soma and to other cells (neurons)

Myelin sheath

fatty substance produced by certain glial cells; encases axon

• insulate, protect, and speed neural impulse

Soma

cell body; contains nucleus and chemical "machinery" common to most cells

Terminal branches/buttons

small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters (chemical messengers)

Dendrites

branchlike structures that receive info from other neurons

Synapse

junction where info transmitted from one neuron to another

Glia cells

support for neurons

• deliver nutrients, produce myelin, flush waste and dead neurons and influence info processing

• influence generation of new neurons during prenatal development

Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley (1952)

-studied giant squid -unraveled mystery of neural impulse

Semi-permeable fluid

allows ions to travel both in and out of the neuron

Outside/inside the neuron

inside: ions are mostly negative outside: ions are mostly positive

Resting Potential

neuron's state when it is NOT firing a neural impulse inactive neuron has stable, negative charge (-70 millivolts) "ready to fire"- capable of generating action potential

Action Potential

brief shift in neuron's electrical charge that travels along axon' begins at soma

• neural messages travel anywhere 2mph-270mph (myelin makes faster)

Absolute Refractory Period

min length of time during which another action potential cannot being

• recharging phase (1-2 milliseconds)

• nerve WILL NOT respond to 2nd stimulus

Threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger neural impulse

All-or-none Principle

if neuron fires, ALWAYS at same intensity (100

Depolarization

positive ions enter the neuron making it more prone to fire and action potential

Synapse

junction between axon terminal tips of sending neurons and dendrites of receiving neuron

• action potential (electrical energy) cannot jump the gap