SciOly Prep- ESS

What is the main focus of the Dynamic Planet event for the 2025-2026 season?

Oceanography.

What materials are allowed in the Dynamic Planet competitions?

Binders of any size and two non-programmable calculators.

What are the primary components of seawater?

Seawater is composed of 96.5% water and 3.5% dissolved salts, primarily sodium chloride (NaCl).

How does the density of seawater change with depth?

Density increases with depth, influenced by temperature and salinity; higher salinity and lower temperatures lead to higher density.

What is the typical salinity range of seawater?

Salinity typically ranges from 31-38 g/kg.

What factors can affect the salinity of seawater?

Salinity can be lower in areas with freshwater input (estuaries, glacial melt, monsoons) and higher with increased evaporation or sea-ice formation.

What are the main sources of salt in seawater?

Land runoff (eroded ions), hydrothermal fluids from seafloor vents, and underground/undersea salt deposits.

What type of radiation primarily heats the ocean?

Shortwave radiation from the sun.

How does longwave radiation affect the ocean?

It is emitted by Earth's surface and atmosphere and primarily affects the ocean's surface layer.

What are heat fluxes and why are they important?

Heat fluxes are the movement of energy through conduction, convection, and radiation, impacting ocean currents, stratification, and climate patterns.

What is geothermal heat and how does it affect the ocean?

Geothermal heat originates from Earth's interior and is transferred through conduction and convection, contributing heat to deep ocean areas.

What are the three layers of the ocean?

1. Surface layer (mixed layer): Warmest and most variable temperature. 2. Thermocline: Temperature decreases rapidly with depth. 3. Deep Ocean: Cold, dense, and salty water from polar regions.

What is the pycnocline?

A layer where density changes rapidly with depth, influenced by both temperature and salinity.

What are the characteristics of active margins?

Active margins are at tectonic plate boundaries, characterized by geological activity like earthquakes and volcanism, often featuring deep oceanic trenches.

What distinguishes passive margins from active margins?

Passive margins are not near plate boundaries, are geologically quiet, and typically have wide continental shelves and thick sediment accumulations.

What are estuaries and their significance?

Estuaries are partially enclosed coastal bodies where freshwater and saltwater mix, supporting high nutrient levels and biodiversity.

What are ocean basins?

Large geologic basins below sea level, covering the greatest portion of the Earth's surface.

What causes hotspots in ocean basins?

Hotspots are caused by mantle plumes, leading to the formation of seamount chains as tectonic plates move over them.

What is the debate surrounding the fixed vs. mobile hotspot theory?

The debate is whether hotspots are stationary or can move slowly over time.

What are mid-ocean ridges?

Seafloor mountain systems formed by plate tectonics where seafloor spreading occurs.

What drives seafloor spreading?

Seafloor spreading is driven by mantle convection cells, pushing newly formed rock away from the mid-ocean ridge.

What occurs at divergent boundaries?

Plates move apart, typically forming mid-ocean ridges.

What happens at convergent boundaries?

Plates move toward each other, often resulting in subduction zones or continental collisions and mountain ranges.

What are subduction zones?

Areas where oceanic crust sinks into the mantle, generating magma and often creating volcanic arcs or mountain ranges.

What occurs at transform boundaries?

Plates slide horizontally past each other, commonly connecting mid-ocean ridge segments.

What are magnetic reversals?

Switches in Earth's magnetic poles, recorded in rocks as paleomagnetism, helping determine the age of seafloor spreading.

How do nutrient concentrations vary with ocean depth?

Nutrient concentrations are lower at the surface due to phytoplankton uptake and increase with depth due to decomposition, peaking in deep waters.

What causes the highest oxygen concentrations in ocean waters?

Oxygen is highest near the surface due to atmospheric dissolution and photosynthesis, decreasing with depth due to consumption and decomposition.

What are Oxygen Minimum Zones (OMZs)?

Areas where oxygen concentrations are lowest due to high biological activity and stratification.

Where is oxygen distribution highest in the oceans?

Oxygen distribution is highest at the poles and lowest near the equator due to temperature differences.

What role do metals like iron play in ocean productivity?

They are vital micronutrients that can limit productivity in High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll (HNLC) regions.

What are fringing reefs?

Coral reefs that develop directly along coastlines, separated from the shore by a narrow, shallow lagoon.

How do barrier reefs differ from fringing reefs?

Barrier reefs form parallel to the shore but farther offshore, with a wider, navigable lagoon between the reef and land.

What are atolls?

Ring-shaped coral reefs encircling a central lagoon, typically formed after a volcanic island subsides or erodes completely.

What causes ocean waves?

The transfer of energy across the water, primarily by wind, causing water particles to move in a circular motion.

What are key characteristics of ocean waves?

Crest, trough, height, wavelength, period, amplitude, and speed.

What distinguishes deep water waves from shallow water waves?

Deep water waves occur in water deeper than half their wavelength, while shallow water waves are influenced by the seafloor.

What are tsunamis?

Giant ocean waves caused by sudden, large displacements of water, often due to earthquakes.

How can tsunamis be classified?

As local (near-field, little warning) or distant (far-field, several hours of warning).

What is the direction of warm surface currents?

They flow from the equator toward the poles, raising coastal temperatures.

How does the Coriolis effect influence ocean currents?

It deflects moving objects to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

What are gyres?

Large rotating systems of ocean currents, controlled by global wind patterns and the Coriolis effect.

What is the difference between subtropical and subpolar gyres?

Subtropical gyres are anticyclonic (clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere), while subpolar gyres have cyclonic circulation.

What are longshore currents?

Currents that flow parallel to the shore, generated by waves hitting the coastline at an angle, responsible for sediment transport.

What are rip currents?

Narrow, fast-moving channels of water flowing seaward from the shore, which can be very dangerous.

What is upwelling?

The movement of deep, cold, nutrient-rich water to the ocean surface, supporting phytoplankton blooms and creating prime fishing zones.

What drives deep ocean circulation?

Differences in temperature and salinity create density variations that cause water to sink or rise.

What is ocean overturning?

A large-scale pattern that redistributes heat, salt, carbon, and nutrients globally, also known as meridional overturning circulation.

What are water masses?

Distinct bodies of ocean water characterized by similar temperature and salinity, layering based on density.

What occurs during high and low tides?

High tides occur when the sea reaches its highest level, and low tides when it reaches its lowest.

What are spring tides and when do they occur?

Spring tides happen when the Earth, Sun, and Moon are aligned, resulting in the highest high tides and lowest low tides.

What causes neap tides?

Neap tides occur when the Sun, Moon, and Earth form a right angle, partially canceling gravitational forces and resulting in a smaller tidal range.

What are tidal currents and their types?

Tidal currents are horizontal water flows associated with the rise and fall of tides, including flood currents (towards shore) and ebb currents (away from shore), with a brief slack water period in between.

What is tidal resonance?

Tidal resonance occurs when a bay or gulf's natural oscillation frequency matches incoming tides, amplifying the tidal range and potentially causing flooding.

Name some coastal features shaped by geological and oceanographic processes.

Coastal features include bays, beaches, caves, cliffs, coastal dunes, lagoons, deltas, estuaries, and headlands.

How do waves influence beach formation?

Waves shape beaches by moving sediment.

What are near-shore currents and their types?

Near-shore currents include cross-shore currents (undertow), rip currents, and longshore currents, which move sediment and influence shoreline dynamics.

What is shoreline weathering and its effectiveness in marine environments?

Shoreline weathering breaks down rocks through physical and chemical processes, with salt weathering being particularly effective in marine environments.

What primarily causes erosion on coastlines?

Erosion on coastlines is primarily caused by waves, particularly powerful plunging breakers.

What drives sediment transport and deposition along coastlines?

Sediment transport and deposition are driven by waves, tides, and longshore currents, with rivers being a significant source of land-based sediment.

How does organic activity shape coastlines?

Organic activity shapes coastlines through biological erosion and the construction of features like coral reefs and oyster beds.

What factors determine shoreline position?

Changes in sea level, both global and local, determine shoreline position and can cause erosion, flooding, and saltwater intrusion.

What is uplift and subsidence in relation to sea level?

Uplift is the raising of the Earth's surface, while subsidence is the sinking of land, both influencing relative sea level.

What are the primary causes of sea level rise?

Sea level rise is primarily caused by global warming through thermal expansion of water and melting of glaciers and ice sheets.

What do CTD instruments measure?

CTD (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth) instruments measure key water properties at various depths.

What is the purpose of magnetometers in ocean research?

Magnetometers measure changes in Earth's magnetic field, useful for geological surveys and locating shipwrecks.

What are drifters and their function?

Drifters (Lagrangian drifters) are floating devices tracked by satellite to provide real-time data on ocean currents and surface conditions.

How do GIS programs aid oceanographic research?

GIS (Geographic Information System) programs visualize data on maps, aiding in seafloor topography, habitat mapping, and environmental change analysis.

What role do research vessels play in oceanography?

Research vessels are ships equipped for oceanographic research, collecting samples and deploying instruments.

What technology do Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs) use?

ADCPs use sound waves to measure current speed and direction throughout the water column.

How do satellites contribute to ocean research?

Satellites provide large-scale data on sea surface temperature, sea level, currents, and more, used for mapping and research.

How does ocean circulation affect fisheries?

Fisheries depend on ocean circulation, particularly upwelling currents that bring nutrient-rich waters to the surface, supporting phytoplankton and fish populations.

What impact does climate change have on ocean circulation and fisheries?

Climate change has slowed ocean circulation, negatively impacting fishery productivity.

What is astronomy?

Astronomy is the natural science studying celestial objects and phenomena.

What is the Universe?

The Universe encompasses all existing matter and energy, created at the Big Bang.

What are galaxies?

Galaxies are groups of stars, gas, and dust bound by gravity, often around a supermassive black hole.

What are stars and how do they generate heat?

Stars are large bodies of gas that generate heat through nuclear fusion.

What is Newtonian gravity?

Newtonian gravity is the attractive force between two bodies with mass, decreasing with the square of the distance between them.

What is the formula for calculating the force of gravity?

F = G * (m1 * m2) / D^2, where G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses, and D is the distance.

What are the four major types of orbital shapes?

Circular, elliptical, parabolic, and hyperbolic.

What is the significance of perihelion and aphelion in elliptical orbits?

Perihelion is the closest point to the Sun, while aphelion is the farthest point from the Sun.

How is eccentricity related to orbital shapes?

Eccentricity measures how much an orbit deviates from a perfect circle; values closer to 0 are more circular, while values closer to 1 are more elliptical.

What do parabolic and hyperbolic orbits represent?

They are typically trajectories, not repeating orbits, often seen in comets and asteroids.

What does Kepler's First Law state?

Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.

What does Kepler's Second Law describe?

A planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times, meaning planets move slower when farther from the Sun.

What is the relationship described in Kepler's Third Law?

The square of the orbital period (P^2) is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis (a^3).

What are blackbodies in the context of stars?

Idealized objects that absorb all electromagnetic radiation, used to simplify calculations about stellar luminosity and wavelengths.

How is parallax used in astronomy?

It measures the distance to nearby stars based on their apparent shift in position when viewed from different points.

What elements primarily compose stars?

Hydrogen and helium, with 'metals' referring to any element heavier than helium.

What is the difference between absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude?

Absolute magnitude measures brightness at a standard distance (10 parsecs), while apparent magnitude measures brightness as seen from Earth.

What does Wien's Law relate to in stellar physics?

It relates the peak wavelength of emitted radiation from a blackbody to its temperature.

What is luminosity in the context of stars?

The total energy radiated per unit time, which decreases with the square of the distance.

What is the Morgan-Keenan system?

A stellar classification system that categorizes stars based on temperature and other characteristics.

What is an HR Diagram?

A Hertzsprung-Russell diagram that classifies stars based on their temperature and luminosity.

How does a star's mass affect its lifespan?

Larger stars have shorter, more energetic lives compared to smaller stars.

What are the types of nuclear fusion occurring in stars?

Deuterium fusion, the P-P chain, the CNO cycle, and the triple-alpha process.

What are planetary nebulae?

Shells of gas ejected by dying stars, illuminated by the hot core.

What are white dwarfs?

Dense, cooling cores of dead stars, supported by electron degeneracy pressure.

What are supernovae?

Powerful stellar explosions that occur in more massive stars, leaving behind neutron stars or black holes.

What type of star is our Sun classified as?

A G2V star, which is a yellow-white main-sequence star.