AIR TEST VOCAB

Suffrage

Suffrage

right to vote

De jure segregation

segregation enacted by federal, state, or local governments, redlining

De facto segregation

segregation enacted by the people living in that community

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned housing discrimination and created protected classes. If the states continued to discriminate against protected classes they’d lose federal funding.

Grandfather clause

One was not allowed to vote unless their grandfather was able to vote, targeted against former slaves

Redlining

The government would look at neighborhoods and “redline” ones they deemed an undesirable place to live and one of the major factors that went into the decision was the race of the people who lived there.

explicit racial bias

aware of racial bias, tend to embrace it

implicit racial bias

“soft racism” that we are generally unaware of

Jim Crow Laws

laws enacted to be prejudiced against black people, some examples are kids of separate races not being allowed to play together, no interracial marriage, separate schools, separate housing, separate railways, not having a job as a black person is illegal

Affirmative action

steps taken to increase diversity in workplaces and collages

protected classes

age, race, disability, ethnicity, gender, religion, sexual orientation

13th A

abolished slavery

19th A

gave women the right to vote

24th A

Gave black people the right to vote

Expansionary policies

involve increasing government spending and/or lowering taxes in order to “expand” the amount of $ in the economy

Contractionary policies

involve decreasing government spending and/or increasing taxes in order to “contract”/shrink the amount of $ in the economy

Fiscal policy

use of tax policy and spending policy in order to impact the economy 

monetary policy

The Federal reserve sets it, used to expand or contract the economy, sell securities, set discount rates, and reserve requirement %

Progressive tax

income tax on individuals

regressive tax

payroll tax to fund social security

flat tax

income tax on corporations

federal reserve

Sets “monetary policies”. they are independent which means they react to economic situations and ignore political implications 

Selling securities

IOU’s delivered to people willing to lend the government their $, More sold= less $ in peoples hands = lower $ supply

Discount rate

% interest to charge banks for government loans, High % rate = less loans to banks = less loans to people

reserve requirement %

% of $ banks must keep in their vaults, High RR = banks keep more in vaults = less money loaned out to people

inflation

an increase in the money supply, and as a result, a decrease in the value of money

26th Amendment

Must be 18 to vote (lowered voting age from 21 to 18 after realizing that if citizens could die in war at 18 they should be allowed to vote at 18). 

The electorate

People who can vote 

Disenfranchised

Denied the right to vote

Hard money donations

Regulated by Federal Election Commission limited donations to $3,300 to prevent bribery and doesn’t allow businesses to donate

Soft money donations

Unregulated donations that usually go to a PAC

PACs

Organizations people can donate an unregulated amount of money towards that will support politicians that supports their objectives. 

Citizens United v. FEC

PACs are unlimited donations, in theory to prevent bribery there should be a separation between the government and PAC donations but the government can’t put a limit on the donations because it would be a violation of the right to free political speech which is the most protected form of free speech. 

Revolving door

This tactic involves individuals transitioning between roles in government and private companies to influence policy making in favor of that company so later on they can get a really good job with that company. 

Pork Barrel Spending / Earmarks

Government funding assigned to specific projects benefiting individual bodies of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a legislative body often at the request of legislators to garner support from their bodies of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a legislative body. 

Rate Members of Congress

Interest groups evaluating and publicly disclosing legislators’ voting records or policy positions to inform the public about their alignment with the group’s agenda.

Provide Information

Interest groups sharing concise, informative, persuasive data and research to influence policymakers and the public, aiming to shape policy decisions in their favor.

Tend to be Republican

White

Old

Rich

Men

Straight 

non-college graduates, people who attend less religious services 

Tend to be democratic

women, 18-49 age range, black or hispanic, college grad+, people who are more unaffiliated with religion 

Tend not to vote

people who don’t make a lot of money, people with HS or less education, young people

National Rifle Association

Promote gun rights, to teach gun safety, and to train anyone on proper gun usage and efficient gun usage.

National Right to Life

Promote abortion bans and protections for unborn children.

Defense Contractors

The companies that build things for militaries. Commonly take advantage of the revolving door.

National Education Association

Supports good education

FEC

Federal Election Commission

district courts

relies on a panel of 12 jurors

questions of fact

answered by district courts

Questions of law

answered by appellate courts

Hung jury

an undecided jury even if just one person disagrees

Acquittal

all 12 jurors say not guilty

Precedent

looking at old court cases similar to the current one in order to come up with a decision. 

Judicial activism

More focused on using today’s standards to make decisions

Judicial Restraint

Looks more at the original intent of the constitution and previous cases to make decisions

Physical evidence

stuff that gets brought into court as evidence. Can consist of recordings, papers, DNA evidence, pictures of things at the place of the crime

Independent judiciary

when they are making their decisions they don't care about what the people, parties, or branches think. 

• Life-long terms

• Can still be impeached

• 100% of their focus is on the Constitution

• They remain independent from the other branches

• Independent from other voters

• Gives them the avenue to use judicial review

Questions of fact

answered by district courts

Questions of law

answered by appellate courts

Life ten yard

A life term that supreme court members usually serve 

Evidence

1. Physical- bite marks, DNA samples, etc  2. Testimony (eye-witness)- the person that says yes, I saw them do it

Miranda v. Arizona

Made it so miranda rights had to be read allowed to people arrested IF you’re in an environment that makes it seem like you’re under pressure to say stuff or answer questions. (decided with activism)

Gideon v. Wainwright

made it so no matter the case all people have the right to a lawyer if they can’t afford one.

Plaintiff

The person who brings a civil suit in a court of law. The party who must prove that they have been injured by the actions of another. The word plaintiff is only used in civil court cases, not criminal court cases.

Defendant

The person who must defend himself against a civil suit. A defendant may be a private person, a company, an institution or rarely, a government entity. Criminal proceedings must prove a person’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, while civil proceedings must only find a majority of evidence against the defendant.

Stare decisis

The doctrine that courts will adhere to precedent in making their decisions.

Writ of certiorari

A request that the Supreme Court order a lower court to send up the record of the case for review. The Court usually is not under any obligation to hear these cases, and it usually only does so if the case could have national significance, might harmonize conflicting decisions in the federal Circuit courts, and/or could have precedential value.

Supreme Court

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States. Article III of the U.S. Constitution created the Supreme Court and authorized Congress to pass laws establishing a system of lower courts. In the federal court system’s present form, 94 district level trial courts and 13 courts of appeals sit below the Supreme Court.

US court of Appeals

There are 13 appellate courts that sit below the U.S. Supreme Court, and they are called the U.S. Courts of Appeals. The 94 federal judicial districts are organized into 12 regional circuits, each of which has a court of appeals.  The appellate court’s task is to determine whether or not the law was applied correctly in the trial court. Appeals courts consist of three judges and do not use a jury. A court of appeals hears challenges to district court decisions from courts located within its circuit, as well as appeals from decisions of federal administrative agencies. In addition, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit has nationwide jurisdiction to hear appeals in specialized cases, such as those involving patent laws, and cases decided by the U.S. Court of International Trade and the U.S. Court of Federal Claims.

District courts

The nation’s 94 district or trial courts are called U.S. District Courts. District courts resolve disputes by determining the facts and applying legal principles to decide who is right. Trial courts include the district judge who tries the case and a jury that decides the case. Magistrate judges assist district judges in preparing cases for trial. They may also conduct trials in misdemeanor cases. There is at least one district court in each state, and the District of Columbia. Each district includes a U.S. bankruptcy court as a unit of the district court. Four territories of the United States have U.S. district courts that hear federal cases, including bankruptcy cases: Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. There are also two special trial courts. The Court of International Trade addresses cases involving international trade and customs laws. The U.S. Court of Federal Claims deals with most claims for money damages against the U.S. government. 

Executive Orders

A presidential announcement that a policy is in place that is required to properly enforce the law. (can also be explained in a way

Line-item veto

The president gets to veto just a part of the bill, which seems fine maybe? But they can also undo the entire point of the bill by doing this

Chief of State / Chief Citizen Role

Being the symbol of the country- looking good all around.

Balancing the Ticket

Picking a VP that will help you to accomplish one goal (to get elected) to try and get you to be appealing to more voters (usually try and go for someone who appeals to certain areas you don’t; race, age, gender, religion etc.)

Nepotism/Cronyism- Gets stuff bc of family, Friends, Funders. 

Honeymoon Phase

Beginning of the president's term where everyone has a lot of good expectations for them. 

Lame Duck Phase

The time between Early nov- Jan 20th where someone new is elected but someone is still the president and no one cares about them anymore.

12th Amendment

Separated the president and vice president on the electoral college ballot which guarantees the president and Vice president will be in the same party.

22^nd Amendment

Limits the President to only 2 terms which prevents the President from becoming too powerful. 

23rd Amendment

Gave D.C. their own 3 electoral votes. 

25^th Amendment

Vice president becomes president in the case of death, and the president can nominate a new vice president if there is none. (VP amendment)

Tafts philosophy on president powers

expressed, ones given by congress, Necessary and proper powers.

Teddys pilosophy on president powers

anything as long as the constitution doesn’t say he can’t do it.

Department of Agriculture

In charge of anything and everything to do with food, including forestry, animal care, and farming. (including the trade and economic situation of food, as well as the environmental effects of farming) 

Department of Commerce

In charge of trade in the United States, basically the center for economics, as well as the patent and trademark issuing offices.

Department of Defense

In charge of all of the military efforts within the United states. (War-fighting, providing humanitarian aid, peacekeeping, and disaster relief services) 

Department of Education

In charge of ensuring access to education to all people throughout the United states

Department of Energy

Ensures America’s access to clean energy, as well as trying to promote clean and renewable energies usage in the market (in charge of the United State’s nuclear energy security) 

Department of Health and Human Services

in charge of trying to protect the health of all of the United State’s citizens, they work to try and prevent disease outbreak, ensure drug and food safety, and supply health insurance. ( NIH- National Institutes of Health, FDA- Food and Drug)

Department of Agriculture

16 agencies, promote agricultural trade, 150 billion budget. 

Department of Commerce

creates conditions for economic growth and opportunity

Department of Defense

provide the military forces

Department of Education

$68.6 billion budget, 4,200 financial aid.

Department of Energy

$23 billion, 100,000 employees, resolution to nuclear weapon production, funding  for innovation

Department of Health and Human Services

700 billion dollar budget, 65,000 employees 

Department of Homeland Security

protects Americans from foreign and domestic threats

Department of Housing and Urban Development

$40 billion budget, 9,000 employees, public housing, homeless assistance, mortgage and rent subsidy

Department of the Interior

Protects nature and animals, $16 billion budget

Department of Justice

enforces the law and defends the interests of the United States according to the law 

Department of Labor

oversees federal programs for ensuring a strong American workforce.

Department of State

plays lead role in developing and implementing the President’s foreign policy

Department of Transportation

$70 budget, 55,000 employees, takes care of roads, railways, sea travel, traffic