OCR GCSE Ancient History - Rome

Give the name and dates of Rome's first king

Romulus, 753-716

Give the name and dates of Rome's second king

Numa Pompilius, 715-673

Give the name and dates of Rome's third king

Tullus Hostilius, 673-642

Give the names and dates of Rome's fourth king

Ancus Marcius, 642-616

Give the names and dates of Rome's fifth king (1st Etruscan king)

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, 616-579

Give the names and dates of Rome's sixth king (2nd Etruscan king)

Servius Tullius, 578-535

Give the names and dates of Rome's seventh and final king (3rd Etruscan king)

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, 535-509

In what year was the republic established?

509

In what year did the Roman-Etruscan (Porsennan) Wars begin?

c. 508

In what year was the role of dictator created?

501

In what year was the battle of Lake Regilius and the defeat of Superbus?

c. 496

In what year was the First Secession?

494

In what year was the Volero uprising?

471

Give the dates of the three-year period in which both Decemvirates and the second secession started and ended

451-449

How does Livy describe the accounts of history which he uses? What does he say about his methodology?

"mainly poetic tales, rather than reliable records of historical events"

He had "no intention of challenging these tales", because the "ancients must be allowed to make the foundation of their city ... more impressive by adding the divine to human history"

Livy used many sources. Who, however, was likely his most influential source?

Fabius Pictor, a Roman historian writing at the end of the 3rd century, drawing together all available sources to create a timeline of Roman history.

What was Livy's philosophy?

Stoicism (virtue is based on gaining knowledge)

What was Dionysus of Halicarnassus'saim?

To emulate Herodotus, by demonstrating the influence of Greek ideas

Why did early Greek and later Roman authors create Aeneas?

To link the foundation of Rome with Homer's Iliad

Describe Aeneas' marriage and the founding of the Latins

Aeneas and his army were Trojan refugees. They arrived in Italy, stealing food to survive. King Latinus tried to drive him out of Italy, but formed a strong friendship with him after they fought together against the Etruscans. Aeneas married his daughter, Lavinia, and founded a city called Lavinium. Over time, the Trojan Lavinium united with local tribes from Latium, creating a group of people known as the Latins.

Who founded Alba Longa? What were his descendants known as?

Ascanius, the son of Aeneas,

The Silvan Kings

When did Aeneas supposedly found Lavinium? When was it actually founded and by what?

12th Century, the 10th-7th Century as part of the spread of the Villanovan civilisation

Describe the legend of Romulus and Remus.

Romulus's grandfather, the Silvan king Numitor of Alba Longa, was ousted from power by his brother, Amulius. Amulius murdered Numitor's son (Romulus's uncle) and made his daughter Rhea (Romulus's mother) a Vestal Virgin to prevent her having children.

Rhea Silvia gave birth to the twins Romulus and Remus anyway. To avoid execution, she told Amulius that the god Mars had made her pregnant. Amulius imprisoned her and ordered the twins be drowned in the Tiber. Discovered by a she-wolf, they were nursed until a shepherd discovered them.

The shepherd Faustulus and his wife Larentia suspected they were royalty, but raised them as their own. A gang of robbers ambushed them, Remus was captured and given to Amulius but Romulus escaped. Amulius worked out who Remus was, but Romulus organised an army, killed Amulius, restored Numitor to the throne, and freed Remus.

What did Romans claim Romulus created?

Asylum, City walls for saftey, political representation with the patron-client system, the Senate

Why is the story of Romulus inaccurate?

Rome was likely founded in the 13th-12th century, whereas the Roman historians give the date of 21st April 753, chosen for religious reasons.

Only four kings between 753-617 is very unlikely.

Roman historians say no systems were removed, with the Republic just adding to Romulus' system. This is extremely unlikely.

With which king does Romulus agree to share power?

The Sabine king Tatius

Describe Romulus's religious initiatives

Livy: Adopted the customs of local cities, e.g. AL

Dionysus: Assessed Greek practices and chose the best

Livy: Built a temple to Jupiter to commemorate military success, was influenced by the Greek legend of Heracles, and transformed into a god with his disappearance

Describe Romulus's military initiatives

Military Tribunes organised the call to arms for each tribe

Centurions commanded each unit, called a century, made of 60-100 men

Celeres were the most loyal soldiers, and acted as the bodyguard for Romulus. They were drawn from the equites class

Describe the rape of the Sabine women

Romulus needed women for his new city. He appealed to his neighbours to help him arrange marriages between his leading men and their women. They all refused. He organised a festival with games, inviting the Sabines. During it, Romans abducted many young Sabine women, raping them. Eventually, the women settled. The Sabine king, Titus Tatius, spent 9 months making allies and preparing for war, just enough time for the Sabine women to have children. One of his allies, the city of Caenina, did not wait and plundered the outskirts of Rome. Romulus massacred their army, marching into Caenina. Romulus began the tradition of spoila opima, building the temple of Jupiter Feretrius.

The Sabines invaded and took much of Rome. Rome's leading general, Hostius Hostilius, was murdered and there was panic. Romulus prayed to Jupiter and retook the citidael. The Sabine women entered the battlefield and pleaded for the fighting to stop (if Rome wins, orphans, if Sabines win, widows). Romulus agreed to share power with Tatius, building the Forum to cement it.

How did Romulus die?

He was killed by a mob of anger senators. Supposedly he was taken up to heaven in a storm cloud while reviewing his troops.

Describe the transition between Romulus and Numa

The senators murdered Romulus, and attempted to rule by themselves for a year, known as the interregnum. There was unrest as the patricians did not serve the plebeians well. To end disorder, the Senate chose Numa, a Sabine noblemen with a reputation for piety and justice.

Describe Numa's religious initiatives

- Married a goddess named Egeria, who advised him how to govern Rome with religion

- Created a priesthood for Mars (Father), Romulus (Son), and Quirinus (Divine spirit of Romulus). The idea of the trinity would be borrowed by other religions, e.g. Christianity

- Flamen Dialis created for Jupiter by Romulus. He also made sure the king performed his sacred duties, even during times of war

- Pontiff created by Numa, chosen from the Senate as an official to look after religious practices in Rome

- Introduced Vestal Virigns, set aside public funds for the upkeep

- Some archaeological evidence that Etruscan ideas began to influence Roman religion around 50 years after Numa's death, but sketchy

- Created a lunar calendar

Describe Numa's diplomacy

Poor men from the asylum were planning a revolt. Numa gave them some of Romulus's land to end the conflict peacefully. This story is anachronistic, suited more to Conflict of Orders

Divided Rome into districts with an official to inspect them, reporting workers that were negligent so the king could intervene peacefully.

Construction of Temple of Janus, doors were always left open except after the 1st Punic war, after the Augustan civil war, and during Numa's reign.

Tullus Hostilius shook Rome from what?

"idleness"

Describe the battle of Tullus Hostilius against Alba

The Romans and Albans had been close allies for a while, but the Alban king Gaius Cluilius wanted compensation for damage caused by Roman border cattle raiders. The Albans set up camp on the outskirts of Rome, but their king died, and was replaced with the dictator Mettius.

Mettius attempted diplomacy, reminding Tullus of their common Trojan heritage. Mettius and Tullus agreed to avoid war, but wanted to still see conflict, so organised a fight between the Horatii and Curiatti triplets. Two of the Horatii were quickly killed, but each of the Curiatti were wounded different amounts. The last Horatii ran away, and the Curiatti pursued at different speeds due to their wounds, so he could kill them one by one. Rome therefore won, and took control of Alba

Describe the actions of Mettius after the battle of Alba

He did not accept defeat, forming a secret alliance with the Etruscan cities of Veii and Fidenae. Tullus and Mettius drew up against the Etruscans, but then Mettius led the Albans away from the battle. Tullus managed to still defeat the Etruscans, then exposed Mettius' plan and executed him by tying him to four chariots and ripping him apart.

How did Tullus die?

Plague struck Rome, and he refused to allow his armies to rest and take care of their families, leading to unrest. Many people openly criticised Tullus and praised Numa, and he was killed by the gods with a thunderbolt.

What legal reform did Tullus introduce and why?

The right to appeal. The last Horatii, Publius, killed his sister who had been betrothed to one of the murdered Curatii. He was so popular that Tullus avoided passing judgement by asking two patrician judges to hear his case. Both found him guilty but he was freed on appeal due to the civil unrest the ruling caused

What was Ancus Marcius's character?

A mix between Tullus and Numa

What did Ancus Marcius do?

- Told his pontiff to publish laws and religious rites on oak boards throughout the city, to reintroduce Numa's teachings to the citizens

- Created envoys who visited enemies, informed them of Rome's grievances and plan to invade, and gave them a chance to make the situation right, in order to solve issues peacefully

- Captured and razed the Latin city of Politorium to the ground so it would not be used to attack Rome

- Beat the Latin threat in the Battle of Medullia

- Invited the Latins to become Roman citizens and settled them in a new district between the Aventine and Palatine

- Extended Rome over the Tiber, built a bridge to and walls around the Janiculum hill, created the port of Ostia and a salt works on the Tiber

Who were the Etruscan kings?

Greeks who came from the Etruscan city Tarquinii, made powerful by Demaratus, a Greek refugee from Corinth in 657 who brought Greek craftsmen, engineers, and traders to Italy via Tarquinii

Who was the father of Lucumo (Priscus)?

Demaratus

Why did Lucumo (Priscus) move to Rome?

He inherited Demaratus's wealth on his death but could not stand for office in Tarquinii because he was half-Greek. His wife Tanaquil, an Etruscan noblewoman, encouraged him to move to Rome, where non-Romans could be powerful, as shown by the Sabine King Numa. On the journey there an eagle took Priscus' cap and replaced it. Tanaquil, with experience of interpreting omens, told him that he could secure the Roman throne.

How did Lucomo (Priscus) become king on arrival at Rome?

He visited Ancus Marcus, told him of his incredible wealth and said he would be honoured to give his wealth to the people of Rome. Ancus, delighted, gave him and his followers a plot of land and assigned him to a curia. He suggested Lucomo take a Roman name, becoming Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. He funded wars and fought bravely in them for the king, he had good judgement, and used ambitio and largesse to secure. He also removed Ancus' children from Rome, becoming king on his death.

Describe the political change of Priscus's reign

- Added 100 of his men to the Senate from less noble patrician families to consolidate his family

- Built the Circus Maximus with the spoils of war, giving a number of patricians the right to build their own 12-feet high seating areas to demonstrate political significance

- Murdered by Ancus' sons at 80, first change in kingship Livy admits was murder

Describe the social change of Priscus' reign

- Construction of Circus Maximus allowed him to increase the number of festivals/games in Rome

- Forum was extended, shops and colonnades were constructed (archeological evidence agrees)

- Construction of open-air sewer began, would become Cloaca Maximus under Superbus

Describe the Religious Change of Priscus' reign

- Increased number of Vestal Virgins to six and introduced harsher punishments if they broke their vow

Describe Priscus' military record

Livy and Dionysus agree he was an excellent military commander, successfully defeating several Latin, Etruscan, and Sabine cities, and punishing the Veii for revolting.

While Priscus was strengthening Rome's city walls, a Sabine army corssed the Anio and threatenend the city. Priscus' demanded the formation of new centuries, but an augur told him the Gods did not support his plan because he tried to name them after himself. Priscus got around this by doubling the number of men in each century and adding 1,200 horsemen.

How was Servius apotheosised?

He was depicted as a young slave who's head was surrounded in flame while he slept. Tanaquil witnessed this and said he would save the royal family in their time of need. Priscus then raised Servius as his son and married him to one of his daughters.

Livy instead argues that Tullius was the son of the leading general of Corniculum of the same name. The general was killed and his wife was brought to Rome to live with Tanaquil, her friend.

Another myth suggests Servius was conceived by his mother being impregnated by a divine phallus which rose from a fire

Why did Servius become the next king?

Chaos after Priscus was assssinated - Tanaquil closed the palace and planned to take the throne and avenge Priscus with Servius. She helped him become king. They pretend Priscus was just unwell, and Servius ruled so the people could get used to him and have order restored. Eventually they revealed his death and Servius became king, becoming the first king undemocratically chosen.

Outline the Servian reforms

- The census

- Development of Equites

- New voting system

- New tribal system

- Extension of city

- Servian Wall

- Temple of Diana

How did Servius change the voting system?

Romulus gave each citizen an equal vote in the Comitia Curia. To compensate the patricians (the development of the equites helped promote some plebian families) Servius made votes be cast according to wealth

How did Servius change the Rome geographically?

Abolished the curiae system, replacing it with four tribes, one for each physical quarter of Rome.

Added the Quirinal and Viminal hills, extended the Esquiline, and began the construction of the Servian wall and Pomeranian line.

How was the temple of Diana built?

Joint project between Rome and a number of Latin cities, strengthening ties and cementing Rome's position as the most powerful city in the area. Rome potentially sent a delegation to Ephesus (Greek turkey) to see the temple of Diana joint-built there, before beginning their own

How did Superbus become king?

The Servian reforms, along with it's increasing financial and military burdens made Servius unpopular, especially among the patricians. Superbus had the support of many of the senators that his father Priscus had added, and won the support of the younger and more inexperienced ones using largesse. Livy suggests Servius' old age and his daughter encouraging Superbus to take the throne were main factors. Superbus argues that the "slave-king" did not have the vote of the people or support from the senate, but ruled based on the plotting of a woman. He then said that "the son of a king will always better a slave", before hurling him down the Senate steps where he died. (either from Tullia on a chariot or from Superbus' men)

Outline Superbus's political changes

- Seized the throne by force and never officially received the Senate's confirmation

- Used bodyguards (lictors) and never appeared announced, so that no one could plot an assassination attempt

- Presided over capital crime trials alone

- Slowly decreased Senate's control until they weren't consulted

- Refused to bury Servius

- Removed the census, treated plebs badly according to Dionysus

- Banned religious ceremonies which could theoretically allow groups to plot against him

- Created jobs for plebs, albeit unpleasant, modernising Circus Maximus, creating Cloaca Maxima, and constructing several temples

- Military expansion created colonies for some plebs to get new land

How many Sabine books did Tarquin buy? How many were destroyed?

3, 6

Describe Superbus's military record

- Effective diplomat and general

- Dionysus and Livy agree he enlarged Rome's empire, creating two colonies at Signia and Circeii

- Conquest of Gabii

- Defeat of Volsci which started a 200 year war

How did Superbus conquer Gabii?

Sent Sextus, pretending to flee Rome, to Gabii. Sextus quickly rose through the ranks in Gabii's political structure with Superbus letting him win token victories. Eventually in command of Gabii's army, and murdered the leading men of Gabii after a signal from Superbus, who cut the heads of the tallest roses in his garden and told the messenger to describe his actions to Sextus

What were orders in Ancient Rome?

Plebeians - urban skilled workers with shops attached to homes, most had to serve in the army in a large hoplite force. Rural plebeians were labourers or farmers, with the biggest issue facing them being access to land

Patricians - Noblest families, fluid membership. Elevation of plebs to patricians was possible. Patricians made up the magistrates.

Describe the Rape of Lucretia

Tarquinius's sons and their cousin Tarquinius Collinatus were drinking heavily, debating their wives' virtues. Rode home to spy on their wives. Royal princesses were drinking heavily but Lucretia, Collinatus' wife, was working hard. Sextus visited again alone in a few days, welcomed by Lucretia. He attacked and raped her at night, threatening to claim she was an adulterer that he had discovered her with a male slave and killed them both, which would ruin Collinatus' reputation.

Sextus left, Lucretia sent for her husband Collinatus, who brought Lucius Junius Brutus with him, and her father Spurius Lucretius, who brought Publius Valerius with him. She made them vow revenge and then killed herself.

Describe how Brutus created the Roman Republic

Brutus was a grandson of Priscus and Superbus' nephew. Superbus killed his brother, and Brutus pretended to be stupid to survive. On a visit to the Delphic Oracle with Superbus' sons, he interpreted the oracle's message (first to kiss mother would be king) and kissed the ground first, therefore he was ambition.

Brutus was tribune of the celeres with the ability to control them (king's bodyguard) and call assemblies. At the assembly he outlines the crimes of Sextus and Superbus and demanded his exile. The people of Rome exiled Superbus, refused to let him back into the city on his return. Sextus returned to Gabii.

Describe the Tarquin conspiracy

Superbus was still influential and likely to attack Rome - exiling him did not guarantee saftey. Brutus got hte support of the Roman army and suggested that Collinatus should step down so that there would be no members of the Tarquin family left in Rome (even though Brutus was related, he did not have Tarquinius as a name).

Superbus sent members of the royal family to demand the return of his property. The Senate agreed, but Brutus told the Senate to refuse as he wanted to seiuze Superbus' land as compensation for his tyrannical abuse. The Senate rejected the request, but while they debated, Superbus' family approached leading patricians to join a conspiracy to kill Brutus. Valerius discovered the plot, arrested them, and Brutus had all of them killed, including one of his sons. After the conspiracy was discovered the Senate agreed to seize the land.

Describe the main political features of the Republic on creation

- All magistrates other than censors were now given lictors, to show they'd collectively inherited the imperium of the kings

- Two consuls were the most important magistrates:

Controlled the army

Performed auspices before battles to predict the outcome

Supposed to protect Rome and seek glory

Elected for one year (could serve multiple years but not consecutively)

Could veto each other

- Censors were also magistrates:

Administrative work

Census every year

Organised the Senate

Decided contracts for public work

Elected for five years

Created by Priscus purely to carry out census, but during republic also maintained public morals and decided on building projects.

- Dictators

Appointed in times of emergency

Total power, replaced consuls

Could assemble armies and manage state to defend Rome/overcome an emergency

Held position for six months

Deputy called Master of the Horse held them to account, prevented abuse of power

- Senate created by Romulus

During republic held position for life

Made up of retired magistrates

Advised consuls, controlled treasury, helped development of city and diplomacy

What was the Latin League?

A confederacy of Latin cities which co-operated to maintain peace and trade. Also a significant ally of Superbus once he was exiled

Describe the battle of Silvia Arsia

Superbus approached the Etruscan city of Veii, promising them revenge against the Romans. The people of Tarquinii also sent a force to support him.

The new consul, Valerius, was given command of the army and Brutus the cavalry. The battle was fought in 509-508 BC. Superbus and his son Arruns commanded the Etruscans. Arruns saw lictors, and knew Brutus must be nearby. He turned his horse to perform a decapitation strike but Brutus killed him. Meanwhile, Valerius drove the Tarquinii back, suffering heavy losses.

Valerius arranged a state funeral for Brutus but put off seeking a replacement

Give the order of the wars of Independence

Tarquin Conspiracy

Battle of Silvia Arsia

Battle of Lars Porsena

Battle of Lake Regilius

What problems did Publius Valerius face? How did he get the name Publicola?

Accused of wanting to be a king, having not appointed a replacement consul and wanting to build a house on a high hill in Rome. He called an election, appointing Marcus Horatius as his colleague. He built his house at the base of the hill so he was beneath the people and introduced a number of laws to guarantee fair prices for the plebeians and give them the right of appeal against magistrates.

How did Valerius develop Rome after the Battle of Silvia Arsia?

Strengthened the city walls and rebuilt the legions, having suffered heavy losses

Describe the Battle of Lars Porsena (not the three heroic acts)

Superbus approached LP, king of Clusium, for help. LP demanded Rome restore Superbus as king, or return his property to him. Rome refused and LP declared war, quickly taking control of the Janiculum. Rome positioned it's army in front of the bridge over the Tiber, in a last stand defence.

Rome's armies failed and many of their best soldiers were killed or injured.

(Horatius Cocles story)

The Romans were decisively defeated, desperate plebs fled and joined Superbus, the Latin League refused the consuls' request to intervene because Superbus and Rome were both members of the League.

(Gaius Mucius story)

LP agreed to end the war if Rome guaranteed Veii's independence and provide hostages to Clusium.

(Cloelia story)

Describe the legend of Horatius Cocles

During the battle of LP, Rome's armies failed and many of their best soldiers were killed or injured. To avoid a massacre three men volunteered to defend the bridge into the city. One was named Horatius Cocles, a distant relation to the surviving Horatii. He fought bravely, protecting the bridge and allowing the Roman army to retreat into the city. The last Roman soldier destroyed the bridge, and Cocles had to swim across to saftey. Livy says he was impaled by a spear in his behind, but Polybius (the earliest known source) says he drowned, which is much more likely given the speed of the river and the weight of his armour.

Describe the legend of Gaius Mucius Scaevola

Mucius approached the Senate, presenting a plan to kill LP, using his knowledge of Etruscan customs to infiltrate the camp.

He successfully entered LP's tent/stage where he was giving a speech, but killed the king's secretary instead of LP himself. Mucius was arrested and brought before the king and threatened with being set alight. However, he thrust his hand into the fire himself and didn't react, and told LP that 300 more men were coming to kill LP from Rome, and that Romans were powerful, as evidenced by the fire. LP offered to end the war if Rome guaranteed Veii's independence and provide hostages to Clusium

Describe the legend of Cloelia

Female hostage as part of agreement, escaped and led several other hostages to safety by swimming the fast Tiber under heavy enemy fire. Despite her threatening the peace agreement, LP called her braver than any of the other Roman heroes and agreed to allow her and a select number of hostages freedom. She chose to rescue the children, which earned her an equestrian statue of recognition on the Sacred Way, an honour reserved usually only for men.

What problem did the Wars of Independence create? How was it dealt with?

The plebeians were heavily impacted by the constant war. The Senate created the role of dictator and master of the horse to deal with the crisis.

The first dictator was Larcius, who updated the census to ensure military levies were fair.

Describe the battle of Lake Regilius

Superbus was (according to Dionysus) over 90 years old by this point but apparently fought like a much younger man. Aulus Postumius was appointed as Rome's second every dictator in 496BC to deal with the threat. At Lake Regilius, Superbus and his son Arruns managed to crush much of the Roman army.

Postumius's celeres (personal bodygaurd), who were stationed at the back to catch the many desperate deserts, were used at the last minute, bolstering and inspiring the \Roman forces and capturing the Latin camp. Superbus and Arruns were injured. Rome rejoined the Latin League and signed a peace treaty with them, ending the threat from them.

What caused plebeian unrest prior to the conflict of orders?

- Rich Romans bought plebeian land and introduced slave labour to far it, leaving many poor Roman citizens by the 2nd century BC

- Livy suggests the Wars of Independence caused homelessness and indebtedness amongst the poor with men having to stay away from the farms to fight, with many veterans returning home to find themselves homeless or with large debts taken to stay afloat. Unlikely, war could be quite profitable and the seizure of land Livy describes in the 5th C would have meant there would be no land to seize in the 2nd.

- Decline of patron-client relationship, with no way for plebeians to express their concerns to patricians

Give the dates of the conflict of orders

494-287 BC

Define a secession

A non-violent protest, where plebeians refused to work or live inside the city to force patricians to listen and introduce change. This reduced Rome's military and workforce

Describe the impact of the Impact of the Battle of Lake Regilius, and the story of the war veteran

The plebs "fought for freedom" (soldiers) at Lake Regilius, while "their families were being imprisoned" (debt) by "those they fought to protect" (Patrician lenders/policymakers).

In 495 a war veteran visited the Forum, claiming that he had been an army commander but had been made homeless by war. His farm had been destroyed by the Sabines and his possessions stolen. The Senate had introduced a higher war tax, he had borrowed to pay his share, but the tax was too high and he could not pay it back. His land was repossessed and his creditor had him tortured and whipped.

The story spread throughout the city, and angry mob of plebs and debtors overran the Forum, demanding justice;. The two consuls, Publius Servius and Appius Claudius, managed to stop a riot but could not stop the unrest.

Describe the role of Publius Servilius (PS) and Appius Claudius (AC) in the first secession

The senate met to discuss the unrest caused by the veteran in the Forum, but did not have a quorum as some senators had stayed away because they did not want to help the plebs. AC wanted to crush the plebs, PS wanted to help the poor with debt relief to avoid conflict.

As the debate ended, Latin horsemen rode in and told the crowd that a Volscian army was attacking Rome's allies. The Senate could not form an army. PS promised debt relief if the plebs fought for him, and easily crushed the threat. AC used his powers as consul to wage war against the debtors, imprisoning many of the men who had just fought to defend Rome. AC told them that PS had no right to cancel debts without the support of the Senate, and PS could not intervene.

Describe the First Secession

AC's actions caused unrest. Plebs freed debtors and attacked senators. The new consuls, Verginius and Vetusius, could not assemble an army, which encouraged Rome's rivals to attack it's Latin allies. Plebs began meeting in secret on the Esquiline and Aventine hills. Senate had an emergency meeting, Titus Larcius took up the plebeian case, believing if the plebs were helped it would end the unrest and allow the consuls to form an army.

AC said the Senate should not be bullied by criminals, and that giving in to them now would create a domino effect. He proposed a dictator be appointed to crush the rebellion. The senate agreed, appointing Publius Valerius (PV). Much to their anger, PV appealed to the people, said he'd put their case to the Senate, managed to assemble 10 legions to defeat the Sabine, Aequi, and Volsci threat. He won, but the Senate refused his proposal of debt relief and he resigned a hero amongst the plebs.

The consuls pretended they were still at war and stayed mobilised, while the army feared they would be used against their fellow plebs. Sicinius, a soldier who fought for PV, suggested a Secession. He led soldiers in occupying the Sacred Mount. Many citizens fled to join them or escape the imminent civil war. They began to raid outlying farms to secure provisions. They told the Senate's ambassadors that they wanted deft relief and refused to negotiate until they were given it. Two new consuls were elected, and chose Menenius Agrippa, a patrician descended from a noble pleb family, to speak with them. He told them a story and convinced them to negotiate.

AC refused to comprimised, telling the Senate to replace the plebs with workers from their Latin Allies. Brutus Lucius Junius and Sicinius presented the case to the plebeians, reassuring them that the Senate wanted to help and proposing the creatio

Describe the story of body politic told by Menenius

Once upon a time a man's body did not work in unison. Instead each organ had its own voice and own ambitions. They complained that they fed the stomach, but it did nothing but enjoy their labours. So they agreed to starve the stomach. The body begin to waste away. The organs realise that they are relied upon each other.

Why had the plebeian tribunes failed to improve the lives of plebs by 462 BC?

-The 1st Secession caused famine. Marcus Coriolanus argued the plebs had caused it and should starve. The tribunes indicted him, but he ignored their threats as they had the power to help the oppressed not punish senators. They used their position to incite the plebs to mob violence if MC wasn't punished. The senators offered him as scapegoat and set fair food prices. MC fled to Volsci to avoid trial and encouraged them to wage war on Rome.

- The consul Spurius Cassius tried to use the tribune proposal of agrarian reform to establish a tyranny. After signing a peace treaty withe the Hernici in 486 he got 60% of their land, and wanted to split it between the plebs and Latins. The Senate accused him of wanting to be a dictator by bribing the poor and the Latins. The plebs became suspicious, espec when he tried to buy their support with surplus grain. He was executed in 485.

- In 473 Volero Pubilius, a pleb, refused to join the army as a soldier because he had been a commander. To avoid arrest, he said the tribunes were too scared of or friendly with the Senate to help the people. The mob turned on the lictors, he escaped. The elder senators urged caution and he was freed instead of punished. He successfully campaigned to be tribune in 472, and demanded a reformed tribune voting system.

- Gnaeus Genucius (tribune) indicted the two consuls who had resisted agrarian reform as soon as they left their magistracy in 473. Members of the Senate met in secret to discuss the problem. On the day of the indictment he was found murdered in his home.

Describe how the senate attempted to stop Volero

If his proposals were accepted, the patricians would have no control over the election of the tribunes. AC's son, also called AC (AC2), was elected as consul. Volero and AC2 clashed violently. To prevent unrest, AC2 was coerced into accepting the law. In 470, AC2 was indicted by the tribunes. He refused to acknowledge the charges against him, causing unrest. The trial was delayed to prevent conflict. During the delay he died.

The Volero reforms strengthened the tribunes, reducing senatorial influence and allowing the plebs to elect who they wanted.

Describe Gaius Terentilius' actions

Quintus Fabius (QF) proposed in 467 that land taken from the Volsci could create a colony for the plebs, offering them new land and reducing the demand for land reform, which weakened the tribunes. Gaius Terentilius Harsa (GT) adopted a new approach. The absence of the consuls let him demand a written constitution to define and limit consular power, claiming they acted with more freedom than kings. QF called him a traitor. The senate agreed GT's ideas were worth investigating, but needed more information before they voted, allowing them to do nothing.

Describe the First Decemvirate

Tribunes realised Gaius Terentilius Harsa (GT)'s ideas were never going to be met. IN 454, they decided to co operate. The new tribunes agreed to drop GT's deamnds if the senate allowed the plebs to participate in the selection of lawmakers. THe senate agreed, and sent ambassadors to Athens to investigate the laws of Solon, which had helped to create it's (at the time) equal democracy. On their return in 452, the Senate created the Decemvirate to create a new law code, replacing the tribunes and consul, with it's members being patrician.

The 1st Decemvirate of 451 was just and fair. AC Crassus, grandson of AC, created the first 10 tables of laws. Crassus became the hero of the plebs. The laws were met with widespread approval but the people demanded two more. The plebs were so relieved that they did not demand the return of the tribunes.

Describe the Second Decemvirate

AC Crassus's popularity among the plebs made many senators concerned that he wanted to control the 2nd decemvirate when it formed. His opponents put him in charge of the selection process, believing he would not be arrogant enough to elect himself.

Crassus manipulated the process to appoint himself and 9 allies which he dominated. Livy calls them the 10 Tarquins. The 2nd Decemvirate of 450 was tyrannical, meeting in secret, appointing 12 lictors each to act as enforcers, holding trials in his friends' homes to attack plebeians and remove his enemies. In 449 they announced they would rule for another year. They created two new tables of laws, protecting the patricians (e.g. banning intermarriage between plebs and patricians).

Describe Valerius' and Horatius' opposition to the second Decemvirate

A Sabine army attacked a Roman colony and the Aequi attacked Algidus, so the Decemvirate called a meeting of the Senate to assemble an army. No senators attended, all plebeians refused to enlist. Crassus used his lictors to force a quorum of senators to attend and told them they could only vote if they approved military action. Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus told the Decemvirate they were acting as kings and would suffer the fate of Superbus. The majority were more fearful of pleb unrest than the Decemvirate. They voted for an army, but it was disheartened and lost many battles.

Describe the abduction of Virginia

Crassus lusted for a plebeian girl named Virginia, knowing she was engaged to Lucius Icilius, a former tribune. Virignia refused his advances, and Crassus told his client, Marcus Claudius, to claims he was a runaway slave so he could put her on trial. At trial, Virginia demanded time to contact her father, Lucius Verginius, who was fighting at Algidus against the Aequi. Crassus agreed to wait if Virginia went home with him.

Icilius fought through the lictors, told crowd Crassus wanted to rape her. They turned against Crassus, he let Virginia leave and told her to return the next day. Icilius went immediately to tell Verginius of the situation.

The next day Crassus dismissed Verginius's and Icilius's evidence. Before the lictors could seize her Verginius asked for permission to speak to Virginia's nurse to check she was his daughter. Taking the chance, he seized a knife from a butcher and killed her.

Describe the Second Secession

After the killing of Virginia, Verginus escaped from Rome and returned to his camp at Algidus. Valerius and Horatius demanded the Senate bring back the tribunes and consuls. They refused, fearing that Verginius would mobilise the army against them, while at least the Decemvirate protected them.

Verginius' fellow soldiers were alarmed to see him covered in blood but he told them what happened, said he'd contemplated suicide, and that they should avenge her death because Crassus would come for their wives, daughters, and sisters next. Many soldiers left and joined a second secession on the Aventine, including the army fighting the Sabines.

What was the impact of the Second Secession?

Alarmed members of the Senate sent envoys to the Aventine. The soldiers said they would only talk to Valerius and Horatius, who used this to their advantage to demand the Decemvirate hand back power to the consuls. The Decemvirate refused. The soldiers heard that Valerius and Horatius were being ignored, and took their families with them to the Sacred Mount, leaving Rome a "ghost town" (according to Livy). Livy is drawing upon a similar event from his life, when Caesar marched on Rome in 49 BC.

The Decemvirate, with no choice, agreed to disband if given legal immunity. Valerius and Horatius agreed and met the soldiers, who demanded the restoration of the tribunes and the indictment of the Decmvirate. The senators urged caution - shield to defend from injustice was fine, sword to attack Decemvirate was bad. An immediate election was held on the Aventine. Verginius and Icilius were two of the 10 tribunes elected, and Valerius and Horatius became consuls.

Describe the Valerio-Horatian Laws

Icilius' first act as tribune was to propose that no revenge be sought against the Decemvirate.

Valerius and Horatius were elected as consuls, and immediately passed laws to protect the plebeian order:

- The right to appeal was restored

- Even before 449, consuls and magistrates could create courts without the right of appeal. This was ended.

- Inviolability of the tribunes and aediles was restored

- The tribunes, despite their promises, indicted Crassus, who (aware of his imminent death) committed suicide. The other 9 members of the Decemvirate went into exile or killed themselves.

Describe the Twelve Tables

Before raising armies to destroy the Sabine and Aequi threat, Valerius and Horatius published the Twelve Tables of Laws, available in precise and simple language and available to all. They gave basic civil rights, but did not make everyone equal before the law.

- Attendance in Court

- Theft

- Lending, Debtors

- Family Law, rights of Fathers

- Inheritance

- Possession, ownership, slavery

- Criminal Acts

- Property Law

- Public law, treason

- Religious Law

Tables 11 and 12 created by Second Decemvirate to protect patricians were kept

What was an aedile?

The assistant to a tribune

Why were the 12 tables and Valerio-Horatian laws very flawed?

Little had actually changed and the two orders still distrusted each other. Tables 11 and 12 were the oppressive laws created by the 2nd Decemvirate, including the ban on class intermarriage.

Describe the legal changes to Rome from 449-440

- The 12 tables and Valerio-Horatian laws encouraged the plebeians to demand more and better reforms

- Gaius Canuleius used his popular support to lift the ban on intermarriage and argue that plebs should be able to stand for election as consuls, in 445 BC

- The Senate offered a compromise to ease unrest allowing plebs to be military tribunes, a new role

Describe the role of a military tribune

It allowed elected plebeians and patricians the power to command armies, and essentially gain the same glory as a victorious consul

Define inviolability/immunity

Legal protection from violence or harm

Define agrarian laws

Redistributions of land or changes in the way that land is farmed.

Define Indictment

A formal accusation that someone has committed a crime