Research methods

1 Research Aim and hypothesis

Deciding what you want to research and predicting what you think you might find.

2 Pilot Study

A small-scale trial run of a research project to ensure it is ready for launch

3 Sampling

The process of selecting individuals or groups to take part in a research study.

4 Data Collection

Methods used to gather information during research.

5 Data Analysis

The process of working through all data gathered to see what you can learn

6 Evaluating the Project

Reflecting on the completed research and assessing whether it was successful.

Primary Research

Research methods that involve the collection of original data for a specific project. e.g. questionnaires, interviews, observations

Triangulation

Using multiple research methods to study the same thing- increases validity

Random Sampling+ evaluation

• random- give each person a number and choose at random

everyone has equal chance so rmeoves bias

may be unrepresentative

Systematic Sampling+ evaluate

Choosing every nth individual from a list to create a sample.

should be representative but may not be

Stratified Sampling+ evaluation

Dividing a population into strata and then randomly sampling from each

representative

time consuming

Snowball Sampling+ evaluation

A sampling technique where small group of peple find others to take part

draws on social groups so may be able to study hard to reach groups

lack of control leads to bias

Quota Sampling

A sampling method where they set controls to fit criteria e.g. ethnicity

ensures sample is relevant to research aim

may not be representative of general population

Opportunistic Sampling

Selecting participants who are readily available for the study.

quick and easy

unrepresentative

Positivism

The belief that sociology can be studied scientifically and objectively.

• cause and effect

• macro approach

• trends

Interpretivism

An approach that focuses on understanding human behavior from the perspective of those being studied.

• empathy

• meaning and motive

• opinions

Questionnaire

A research tool consisting of a series of questions designed to gather information.

• research response only 5% though making a financial incentive, fewer questions, relevant to them or using coloured ink improves this

Open-ended Questions

Questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words.

Closed-ended Questions

Questions that require respondents to choose from a predetermined list of answers.

Official Statistics

Data collected and published by governmental organizations.

strengths for official statistics

important for planning and evaluating social policy

representative of the populatiob

covers long timespan so shows trends over time

weakness for official statistics

partially biased due to being produced by the state

socially constructed- based on subjective decision making

soft statistics like the definition of unemployment changing

strengths for questionnaires

quick and cheap

easy quantified when suing closed questions

no problem of interviewer bias

collect large amounts so more likely to be representative

fewer ethical issues

weaknesses of questionnaires

low response rate

researcher cannot explore more into an issue or see meaning or motive

may not understand a question and cannot clarify

certain demographic respond e.g. not those in full time employment or with families

Documents types and what to consider

• public- OFSTED, health reports

• personal- letters, photographs, medical records

• historical- artifacts and paintings

authenticity: who wrote it? parts may be missing

credibility: is evidence believable? what is the motive behind it?

representative: is it typical of the time period? does it represent everybody?

meaning: what language is it in? what impacts does it have?

context analysis

produces primary quantitative data from study of qualitative secondary sources

content, categories, code, count, conclude

strengths of context analysis

relatively cheap

reliable and easy for others to check

shouldn’t be distorted by changes in behaviour as no involvement with people

weaknesses of content analysis

based on categories decided by the researcher and their interpretation

some items may not fit in categories

only describes, does not explain

Longitudinal Study

Research that follows the same subjects over an extended period. e.g. 7UP

life histroy and evaluation

case study that focuses on one individual through interviews or personal documents

in depth but not representative

Ethnography

The detailed study of people and cultures in their natural environment.

e.g. sampson studied international seafarers for 42 days, swedish and filipino

Field Experiment and example

Experiments conducted in real-world settings where people are in their natural environment e.g. office, school

e.g. being sane in insane places, david rosenhan

• how staff labelled people as mentally ill

• sane patients faked symptons of schizophrenia then admitted into hospital where they were diagnosed

• reversed experiment telling staff to expect fakes but they were actually geniune patients

strengths of field experiment

hgigh in validity as people are in normal environment

easier to organise

possible to have large sample sizes so more representative

weakness of field experiment

unable to control all the variables

hard to gain access to some locations e.g. schools, prisons

researcher may have to deceive participants to get valid results

strength of lab experiment

researcher able to have complete control over variables

easy to replicate the experiment by following the same procedures

easy to quantify behaviours

Lab Experiment and example

Controlled experiments conducted in a laboratory environment.

e.g. milgram experiment

• asked to shock learners if they could not rmember word pair- electric shock was fake

• 65% continued to 450 lethal volts

weakness of lab experiment

participants know they are being studied so may alter their behaviour (hawthorne effect)

researcher may have to deceive participants in order to ensure valid results

Non-participant Observation

Observation where the researcher does not engage with the subjects but takes notes e.g. OFSTED

Participant Observation and example

Observation where the researcher actively engages and participates in the group being studied.

• impractical to takes notes at the time so often written later menaing they are largely based off memory so less accurate

e.g. black like me, john howard

• used medications and sun lamps to change his skin colour

• when white: whites treat him with respect, blacks with fear

• when black: whites treat him with contempt, black with warmth

• races do not understand each other- racism is a result of socialisation

Covert Observation and examples

A research method where the subjects are unaware they are being studied and researcher’s identity and purpose is concealed

e.g. glasgow gang observed, james patrick

• members became suspicious as he held back from fights

overt observation

sociologists are honest about what they are doing and make purpose known

strengths of overt

gets informed consent which avoids ethical issues

allows you to ask more open and upfront questions

observer can make notes at the time

weakness of overt

hawthorne effect

low validity as people may lie

may refuse permisson to observe or only let researchers see what they themselves want

strength of covert

reduces risk of hawthorne effect

gets real insight into group behaviours

highest level of validity

weakness of covert

danger of cover being blown

cannot take notes so have to rely on memory

ethical issues of deception

may have to engage in crime

structured interview

set questions asked in a set order, asked same to each person

strengths of structured interview

way of getting questionnaires done with a high response rate- overcomes illiteracy

date more comprable so research is more replicable

easily put in quantitative statistical form

lesser issue of interviewer bias as little involvemtn of interviewer with interviewee

weaknesses of structured interviews

questions may limit what the respondent can say as the interview cannot probe beyond basic questions so limits understanding

not suitable to explore personal or sensitive topics as there in chance to build trust and encourage interviewee to open up

more time consuming and costly than a questonnaire and less representative

unstructured interviews

interviewer has loose plan of what to ask but can probe deeper or change course

e.g. dobash and dobash, domestic abuse

strengths of unstructured interviews

greater flexibility increases valdity of data as there is more opportunity for trust to be built leading to indepth asnwers

ambiguities in questions can be clarified

group interviews or focus groups can lead to more discussions

weaknesses of unstructured interviews

time and cost limits lead to fewer interviewers so less representarive data

researchers are more involved so differences in respondents may reflect differences in nature of interviewers

difficult to replicate an interview so hard to compare data

hard to measure reponses

more interviewer bias

group interviews or focus groups can lead to peer pressure which means a lack of validity

focus group

small groups of 10-12 people

• researcher discusses certain topics and observes interactions

• individuals guide conversations after the initial question is asked

• this increases empathy, trust and openness as individuals are more comfortable

interviewer bias

TPractical- time, logistics (complexity of organising), cost (longer=more expensive)

Ethical- whether it is morally acceptable (anonymity, bias, confidentiality, informer consent, danger, deception, data protection-GDPR)

Reliability-

• high: questionnaires, structured interviews, lab experiments

• low: observations, unstructured interviews, field experiments

Validity- whether data is true or not

Evidence- use well known case studies or examples

Representativeness- whether it represents the population fairly in size and make up

Theories- how do Positivists and Interpretivists feel about the methodhe response may be influenced by personality, facial expression, age, ethnicity, sex, tone of voice, status difference

• this may be consciously or subconsciously influence their answer or give leading question which encourage interviewee to give a certain answer

• interviewees may adapt their answers to impress the interviewer by giving answers they think the interviewer wants to hear

ways to overcome: not offer opinions, match social characteristics, telephone interviews

PERVERT

Practical- time, logistics (complexity of organising), cost (longer=more expensive)

Ethical- whether it is morally acceptable (anonymity, bias, confidentiality, informer consent, danger, deception, data protection-GDPR)

Reliability-

• high: questionnaires, structured interviews, lab experiments

• low: observations, unstructured interviews, field experiments

Validity- whether data is true or not

Evidence- use well known case studies or examples

Representativeness- whether it represents the population fairly in size and make up

Theories- how do Positivists and Interpretivists feel about the method