Beliefs in society - Topic 5 (Religion in a global context)

What do fundamentalists appeal to?

Tradition and a supposed golden age in the past
They seek a return to the basics or fundamentals of their faith

How is religious fundamentalism different from trad. religion?

Arises only where trad. beliefs and values are threatened / challenged by modern society and especially by the impact of an increasingly globalised economy

How can a threat to trad. beliefs come from outside?

Through capitalist globalisation / penetration of Western culture / military invasion

How can a threat to trad. beliefs come from within?

When sections of society adopt new secular ideas (liberal attitudes to sexuality and gender)

What are the key features of fundamentalism?

An authoritative sacred text
An ‘us an them’ mentality
Aggressive reaction
Use of modern technology
Patriarchy
Prophecy
Conspiracy theories

What is An authoritative sacred text? (in relation to fundamentalism)

For Christian fundamentalists, every word of the Bible is literally true (its truths are valid for all eternity)
It contains the answers to all life’s important qs (from politics to family life)
The text is inerrant (w/o error) and not open to questioning
Thus, Christian fundamentalism requires belief in the Virgin Birth of Christ

Are fundamentalists tolerant or intolerant?

Intolerant of all other views and refuse to engage in rational argument w them

What does Aldridge (2013) say abt fundamentalists?

No text speaks for itself (has to be interpreted) so what fundamentalists hold to be true is just their interpretation of its meaning (not the text itself)
They interpret the Bible solely as a set of historical facts and prophecies abt the future, ignoring other interpretations of it as poetry, symbolism or metaphor

What is an ‘us an them’ mentality? (In relation to fundamentalism)

Fundamentalists separating themselves from the rest of the world and refusing to compromise w it

What does Davie (2013) say abt fundamentalism?

They seek to establish islands of certainty against what they see as social and cultural chaos

What is the Aggressive reaction? (in relation to fundamentalism)

Fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention to the threat of their beliefs and values and their reactions are therefore aggressive and intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm. Authoritative leaders (clergy / elders) who interpret the sacred text are important in giving direction to the reactions

What is the use of modern technology? (in relation to fundamentalism)

Although fundamentalists oppose modern culture, which they see as corrupted by secularism, liberalism, materialism, permissive and promiscuity, they are keen to use modern tech to achieve their aims - from computers and the internet to televangelism and military weaponry

What does Hawley (1994) note abt Patriarchy?

Fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality, reproductive power and their social and economic roles is fixed for all time by divine decree

What is Prophecy (In relation to fundamentalism)

Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to contemporary events. They believe that the ‘last days’ will soon be upon us, when the faithful dead will be resurrected and transported to heaven w the faithful living, before the 7 year rule of the Antichrist and ultimately the final defeat of Satan in the War of Armageddon

What are Conspiracy theories? (in relation to fundamentalism)

Fundamentalists are often attracted to conspiracy theories (the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces and orgs. are in control of human destiny.
Many Christian and Islamic fundamentalists hold anti-Semitic conspiracy theories that believe Jews are conspiring to secure world domination

What does Davie (2013) say abt when fundamentalism occurs?

Where those who hold traditional orthodox beliefs and values are threatened by modernity and feel the need to defend themselves against it (they’re born out of the clash b/w modernity and trad. cultures)

What does Giddens (1999) argue, similarly to Davies?

Fundamentalism is a product of and reaction to globalisation which undermines trad. social norms concerning nuclear family, gender and sexuality

How has a late modern society led to fundamentalism?

Individuals constantly faced w choice, uncertainty and risk. The attraction of fundamentalism and its rigid, dogmatic beliefs is the certainty that it promises in an uncertain world
It’s a retreat into faith-based answers and away from the risks and uncertainties of a globalising world

Giddens identifies fundamentalist versions of what major religions?

Islam, Christianity and Hinduism

What’s Cosmopolitanism?

A way of thinking that embraces modernity and keeping w today’s globalising world

Is Cosmopolitanism tolerant or intolerant?

Tolerant of the views of others and open to new ideas, constantly reflecting on and modifying beliefs in the light of new info

What’s ‘reflexive’ thinking?

Reflecting on and modifying beliefs in the light of new info (using rational arguments to justify views rather than appealing to sacred texts)

How does Cosmopolitanism view a persons lifestyle?

As a personal choice rather than smth prescribed by an ext. religious or other authority

What do Cosmopolitan religion and spirituality emphasise?

The pursuit of personal meaning and self-improvement rather than submission to authority

What is Cosmopolitanism and spirituality similar to?

Hervieu-Leger’s ‘pilgrims’ who explore New Age spirituality

What does Bauman (1992) argue, similarly to Giddens?

Sees fundamentalism as a response to living in Postmodernity.
PM society brings freedom of choice, uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk, undermining the old certainties abt how to live that were grounded in tradition.
In this situation, while some embrace the new freedom, others are attracted to fundamentalism by its claims of absolute truth and certainty

Similarly to Bauman, what 2 responses to PM does Castells (2010) distinguish b/w?

Resistance identity
Project identity

What is Resistance identity?

A defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communies

What is project identity?

The response of those who are forward-looking and engage w social movements such as feminism and environmentalism

Why does Beckford (2011) criticise Giddens, Bauman and Castells?

They distinguish too sharply b/w cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism, ignoring ‘hybrid’ movements
They’re fixated on fundamentalism, ignoring other important developments (globalisation affecting non-fundamentalist religions such as Catholicism)
Giddens lumps all types of fundamentalism together, ignoring important differences b/w them
Giddens’ description of fundamentalism as a defensive reaction to modernity ignores the fact reinventing tradition is also a modern, ‘reflexive’ activity

What does Haynes (1998) argue?

We shouldn’t focus narrowly on the idea Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction against globalisation
For example, in the Middle East, conflicts caused by the failure of local elites to deliver on their promises to improve the standard of living are often the fuel that drives fundamentalism

Similarly to Giddens, what does Bruce (2008) see as the main cause of fundamentalism?

Today’s globalising world threatens religious traditionalists beliefs

What does Bruce see fundamentalism as being confined to?

Monotheistic religions (those believing in a single almighty God)

What religions are unlikely to produce fundamentalism?

Polytheistic religions (those who believe in the existence of many gods e.g Hinduism)

According to Bruce, why are monotheistic religions likely to lead to fundamentalism?

Based on a notion of God’s will as revealed through a single, authoritative sacred text (Qur’an / Bible)
Believed to contain the actual word of God and lays down specific rules for believers to follow

Why are polytheistic religions unlikely to lead to fundamentalism?

Lack a single all-powerful deity and authoritative text, much more scope for diff. interpretations and none has an over-riding claim to legitimacy / absolute truth e.g Hinduism (described as being more like a collection of religions than just one)

In Bruce’s view, what characteristics do all fundamentalists share?

Belief in the literal truth of a sacred text and detestation of modernity

What different origins do different fundamentalist movements have?

Some are triggered by changes within their own society, while others are a response to changes being thrust upon a society from the outside

How do diff fundamentalist movements develop in the West? (Bruce)

In the West, fundamentalism is most often a reaction to change taking place within a society (diversity and choice) typical of secular late society e.g NCR has developed in opposition to family diversity, gender equal. and abortion rights

What is the aim of the NCR in America?

To reassert ‘true’ religion and restore it to a public role where it can shape the laws and morals of wider society

How do diff fundamentalist movements develop in the Third World? (Bruce)

Usually a reaction to changes being thrust upon a society from outside, as in the case of the Islamic revolution in Iran (triggered by modernisation and globalisation in which ‘Western’ values are imposed by foreign capitalism or by local elites supported by the West)
Here, fundamentalism involves resistance to the state’s attempts to sideline it and confine it to the private sphere

In contrast to being a particular religious response to modernity and globalisation, what does Davie (2013) argue abt fundamentalism?

Recent decades have seen the emergence of secular forms of fundamentalism (due to changes in the nature of modern society)

What 2 phases of modernity does Davie (2013) distinguish b/w?

1st phase
2nd phase

What’s the 1st phase of fundamentalism?

Gave rise to religious fundamentalism (late 18th century to 1960s)
Enlightenment philosophy held an optimistic secular belief in the certainty of progress based on the power of science and human reason to improve the world
This ‘Enlightenment project’ dominated European thought and helped to secularise all areas of social life, attacking and undermining religious certainties (Religious fundamentalism is 1 reaction to this secularisation process)

What is the 2nd phase of fundamentalism?

Giving rise to secular fundamentalism
Since 1970s, the optimism of the Enlightenment project has itself come under attack (result of a growing mood of pessimism and uncertainty)
This mood is the product of the insecurity caused by changes such as globalisation, concerns abt env. and collapse of communism in 1989
this has led to a loss of faith in the major secular Enlightenment ideologies (liberalism, rationalism and Marxism) whose claims to truth and belief in progress have been undermined
As a result, secular ideologies are struggling to survive

What does Davie say abt secular ideologies?

Past their sell-by date and some supporters of secular ideologies e.g nationalism have also been attracted to fundamentalism

What’s an example of supporters of secular ideologies being attracted to fundamentalism?

The disintegration of communist Yugoslavia in the early 1990s led to a secular nationalist fundamentalism that justified the ethnic cleansing of territory to create a clear-cut separation b/w ethnic groups - between ‘us and them’

What happened in Western Europe as a result of religious challenges to liberal secular values?

Provoked a secular fundamentalist reaction e.g in 2004, France banned pupils from wearing religious symbols in school, and in 2010 made it illegal for women to wear the veil in public

What does Anseli (2000) see trends of banning veils / religious symbols as?

A form of cultural racism that uses the apparently liberal lang. of universal equality and social integration, while denying racist aims
In reality, it’s abt preserving cultural id. and ‘our’ way of life and legitimates the exclusion of religious and cultural minorities

In conclusion, what does Davie argue?

Both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist as a result of the greater uncertainties of life in the late modern or PM world, in which reasserting truth and certainty is increasingly attractive
As a result, competing fundamentalisms have become a normal feature of today’s society

Similarly to Davie, what does Hervieu-Leger (2000) see fundamentalism as?

A form of ‘recreated memories’ in late modern societies that have suffered ‘cultural amnesia’ and forgotten their historic religious traditions

What’s an example of religion being at the centre of a no. of global conflicts?

the 9/11 terrorist attacks by fundamentalist Islamists in the US

What’s Huntingtons view on the 9/11 conflicts?

Have intensified since the collapse of communism in 1989 and are symptoms of a ‘clash of civilisations’
However, for Huntington, the problem isn’t Islamic fundamentalism, it’s Islam itself

What 7 civilisations does Huntington identify?

Western, Islamic, Latin American, Confucian (China), Japanese, Hindu and Slavic-Orthodox (Russia and Eastern Europe)

What increases the likelihood of conflict in today’s world?

Religious diff. b/w civilisations as globalisation has made nation-states less significant as a source of identity, creating a gap religion has filled
At the same time, glob. increases contacts b/w civilisations, increasing likelihood of conflict

In Huntington’s view, what’s creating a set of hostile ‘us and them’ relationships w increased comp. b/w civilisations for economic and military power?

Religious diff. e.g in the Middle East

Why does Huntington see religious diff. as harder to resolve than political ones?

Deeply rooted in culture and history

What does Huntington see history as a struggle of?

Progress against barbarism (believes West is under threat, esp. from Islam and urges the West to reassert its identity as a liberal-democratic Christian civilisation

Why does Jackson (2006) criticise Huntington?

Sees his work as an example of orientalism

What’s orientalism?

A western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations and ppl (especially Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior or fanatical ‘Others’ and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the West

Why does Casanova (2005) criticise Huntington?

Ignores important religious divisions within the ‘civilisations’ he identifies e.g b/w Sunni and Shi’a Islam

Why do Horrie and Chippindale (2007) criticise Huntington?

See the clash of civilisations as a grossly misleading neo-conservative ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy
In reality, only a tiny minority of the world’s 1.5 billion Muslims are remotely interested in a ‘holy war’ against the West

Similarly to Horrie an Chippindale, what does Armstrong argue?

The hostility towards the West doesn’t stem from fundamentalist Islam, but is a reaction to Western foreign policy in the Middle East
The West has propped up oppressive regimes and continues to support Israel despite its aggressive treatment to Palestinians

What’s Cultural defence?

When religion serves to unite a community against an ext. threat (collective identity)

What gives religion a prominent role in politics?

Defending the community against a threat

What are 2 examples of religion as cultural defence from the late 20th century?

Poland and Iran

How do Poland and Iran illustrate cultural defence?

Illustrate how religion can be used in defence of national identity in the face of political domination by an external power

What was the external power in Poland?

Soviet communism

What was the external power in Iran?

Western culture and capitalism

What happened in Poland from 1945-1989?

Was under communist role, imposed from outside by the Soviet Union
During this time, the Catholic Church was suppressed, but for many Poles it continued to embody Polish national identity.
The Church served as a popular rallying point for opposition to the Soviet Union and the Polish communist party
In particular, it lent its active support to the Solidarity free trade union movement in the 1980s that did much to bring abt the fall of communism
Thereafter, the Church regained a public role and has had significant influence on Polish politics since

What happened in Iran? Who had involvement in the illegal overthrow of a democratic gov. in the 1950s?

Western capitalist powers and oil companies
During the 1960s and 70s, the successor of a pro-Western regime embarked on a policy of modernisation and Westernisation (banning the veil and replacing the Muslim calendar)
Meanwhile, modernisation was widening the gap b/w rich and poor, while protest was ruthlessly suppressed

What does Haynes argue abt the Iranian revolution?

Wasn’t typical of the Middle East (was led by the religious leaders)
In countries such as Saudi Arabia, the religious leadership is closely tied to the local elite, who in turn are tied to Western imperialism. As such, local religious leaders are opposed by local fundamentalists, who regard them as enemies of Islam

What has Globalisation led to in India?

A huge and prosperous, scientifically educated, urban M/C in India, working in It, pharmaceuticals and biotech sectors closely tied into the global economy.
These are precisely the ppl whom sec. theory predicts will be the 1st to abandon religion in favour of a secular worldview

What did a survey by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (2007) find?

Indians are becoming more religious and urban educated indians are more religious than their rural and illiterate counterparts
Only 5% said their religiosity had declined in the last 5 yrs while 30% said they had become more religious

WHat does Nanda’s (2008) book ‘God and Globalisation’ examine the role of?

Hinduism in legitimating the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra-nationalism’ and the prosperity of the Indian M/C

What did Nanda also note abt the increased interest in religion?

Has also been reflected in a dramatic growth of religious tourism (visits to shrines and temples)
Nanda notes it’s becoming fashionable to be religious and to be seen to be so

What’s another feature of M/C religiosity in India?

They’re attracted to what were once low-status village gods and goddesses worshipped by the poor as they’re seen as being more responsive to ppl’s needs than the trad. Hindu ‘great gods’

What does Nanda examine to motivate the urban M/C to believe in miracles and supernatural beings?

She rejects poverty and existential insecurity (since they’re not poor)
And rejects the idea their religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation and Westernisation
On the contrary, the Indian M/Cs are optimistic abt the opportunities globalisation brings them
Instead, their increasing religiosity is the result of their ambivalence abt their newfound wealth

Where does ambivalence abt newfound wealth stem from? (In Indian M/Cs)

Tension b/w trad. Hindu belief in renunciation of materialism and worldly desires, and the new prosperity of the M/Cs (resolved by modern holy men and tele-gurus who preach the msg that desire isn’t bad but rather a manifestation of divinity that motivates ppl to do things)
Similarly, they relieve guilt by teaching M/C consumerism can be ‘spiritually balanced’ by paying for the performance of appropriate and often extravagant rituals

What do modern versions of Hinduism do?

Legitimate the position of the M/C and allow them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism

What does Nanda (2003) also examine the role of Hinduism in?

Legitimating a triumphalist ver. of Indian nationalism

What did the Pew GLobal Attitude Survey find?

93% of Indians agreed w the statement that ‘Our ppl aren’t perfect, but our culture is superior to others’

What does Nanda argue India’s success in the global market is increasingly attributed to?

The superiority of ‘Hindu values’ (a view constantly promoted by the media and politicians) along w the idea that Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture and identity

How has Hinduism become a civil religion?

The worship of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping the nation of India

What’s the impact of Hinduism becoming a civil religion?

A widening gulf b/w Hindus and non-Hindu minorities

How has Hinduism penetrated public life?

The supposedly secular state is increasingly influenced by religion e.g ‘Hindu sciences’ such as astrology are being taught as an academic subject in universities and being used to predict natural disasters

What has happened in SK, Singapore and Taiwan in recent decades?

They’ve industrialised and become significant players in the global economy. China is now a major global industrial power

What are SK, Singapore and Taiwan also known as?

East Asian tiger economies

What has the success of capitalism in East Asia led to some sociologists to argue?

Religion has played a role similar to Calvinism in the development of capitalism in 16th and 17th century Europe

What does Redding (1990) argue?

Describes the spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs in the tiger economies
Sees their ‘post-Confucian’ values encouraging hard work, self-discipline, frugality and a commitment to edu. and self-improvement (Confucianism is a trad. Chinese belief sys.)

What’s the effect of post-Confucian values?

Similar to the Protestant ethic (leads to economic productivity and accumulation of capital)

What does Berger (2003) argue abt Pentecostalism in Latin America?

Acts as a ‘functional equivalent’ to Weber’s Protestant ethic (encourages development of capitalism today in the same way as Calvinism did in 16th and 17th century Europe)

What’s Latin American Pentecostalists work ethic similar to?

Calvinists

How is Pentecostalism similar to Calvinism?

Demands an ascetic (self-denying) way of life that emphasises personal discipline, hard work and abstinence from alcohol
In this way, it encourages its members to prosper and become upwardly mobile

What does Berger conclude abt Pentecostalism?

Has a strong affinity w modern capitalism

Who does Berger agree with?

Weber

What does Berger agree w Weber on?

An ethic like Protestantism is necessary to promote economic development and raise a society out of poverty (led by an active minority w an ethic of this-wordly asceticism such as Pentecostalists

What’s happening in Chile and Southern Brazil?

There’s now a growing and prosperous Pentecostalist M/C leading capitalist development

How does Berger criticise Weber?

Religious ideas alone aren’t enough to produce economic development - natural resources are also needed.
For example, while Pentecostalism has grown in Northern Brazil, the region lacks resources and remains backward
By contrast, the South which is developing rapidly, has both a work ethic and the necessary resources

What has happened in the last 5 centuries (in terms of Christianity)

Christianity has globalised itself by expanding out of Europe, first into South America and then Africa