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The Gilded Age positives (1875 - 1895)
47,000 became professional (e.g. doctors/lawyers).
1865, 1/20 were literate but by 1895 1/2 were literate - shows progress.
1 AA congressman (George White).
The great migration started in the 1890s due to better conditions in the North.
The Gilded Age negatives (1875 - 1895)
Overall, CR didn't improve.
Only 47,000 out of the total 8 million became professional.
Segregation.
Lynchings, 1 lynching every 2 days (South).
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) legalised segregation.
Hayes Tilden compromise allowed racial discrimination in southern states.
False accusation of crimes.
Grandfather clause, poll tax, literacy test, violence and intimidation.
Sharecropping.
The New Deal positives (1933 - 1941)
Benefited AA but could have done a lot more.
1930s, lynching in single figures.
Farm security administration allowed AA sharecroppers to be independent.
Head of Public Work Admin. spent $45 mill. on black schools, hospitals, housing.
Harlem Riot (1935) - resulted in removal of racist individuals, improved opportunities in local Gov, integrated city hospitals.
CIO allowed AA membership w/ 200,000 by 1940.
1 mill. jobs for AA.
Financial aid, trining for 500,000 young AA.
WPA provided 350,000 jobs annually.
5000 AA teachers trained.
250,000 AA literate.
Black cabinet formed.
The New Deal negatives (1933 - 1941)
FDR refused to make lynching a Fed. crime.
Disproportionate amount AA on relief (30% AA vs 10% white).
Social Security Act (1935) + Min. wage legis. excluded domestic/agricultural jobs (2/3 of AA jobs).
Segregation continued.
CCC had an openly racist head, only 6% of AA on relief when 30% needed.
Wagner act (1935) excluded domestic/agricultural.
No Fed. support to sharecropping union in South.
Red lining prevented AA moving into white neighbourhoods.
AA continued living in poor quality/overpriced housing.
Black power positives (1965 - 1968)
Black Muslims rehabilitation of black youth.
49 free healthcare clinics.
Emphasised pride in heritage with the 'Black is Beautiful' movement.
Pushed for AA history to be taught in schools.
Greater publicity of social inequalities.
Fair Housing Act (1968) attempted to ban discrimination in real estate.
Black power negatives (1965 - 1968)
Division between white and AA increased, which weakened the movement.
Association of CR w/ separatism, violence and radicalism further weakened the support of CR.
Only 16% of AA in integrated schools.
AA 2x more likely to be unemployed.
AA income half of national average.
Riots, which undermined MLK public respect,due to racism from whites e.g. LA - 34 killed, $40 mill property damage.
Nothing could be achieved without help of white politicians yet separatism was preached.
The American Civil War
1861-1865
War between North (union states) and South (confederate states) over slavery and succeeding.
Reconstruction period
1865-1877
A period following the Civil War which saw congress (mainly radical republicans) wanting to improve the racist south.
Ended with the Hayes-Tilden compromise.
Hayes-Tilden Compromise
Following the 1876 elections (Hayes and Tilden being the candidates).
1877, a deal was made between Hayes/South Carolina and Louisiana where those states would vote for him in return for 'the right to their own affairs'.
This resulted in troops being removed from Southern states, allowing them the right to ignore reconstruction legis.
This marked the end of the reconstruction period.
Plessy v. Ferguson
1896.
SC ruled that racial segregation didn't violate constitution as long as facilities were equal.
"Separate but equal".
Brown v. Topeka/Board of Education
1954.
1951, a group of parents alongside NAACP sued the Topeka Board of education for not providing appropriate education with the district court judge ruling against them quoting Plessy v. Ferguson.
Thurgood Marshall, NAACP lawyer, took case to SC which ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional.
Little Rock.
1957.
Following Brown v. Topeka the NAACP enrolled 9 AA students, who were denied entry by crowds and National guards.
Eisenhower sent in Fed. troops .
AA students then allowed in but faced harassment.
March on Washington.
28 August 1963.
250,000 marching to demand CR at the capital.
"I have a dream speech" by MLK jr.
Black Codes
Restrictions on AA's rights, unlegal segregation.
Southern states' way to control freed slaves.
Sharecropping
White landowners allowed former slaves to work their land for some produce, this wasn't very different from slavery.
Jim Crow Laws
Legalised black codes.
Old South
the southern states of the US before the Civil War (1861-65).
Radical Republicans
Republican members of congress who opposed slavery.
They saw Southern slaveowners as evil and wanted radical changes to help freed slaves.
Freedmen's Bureau
Aid set up by congress in 1865 for former slaves, helping them adjust to their new lives.
It provided food, shelter, hospitals and education - eventually 2 universities.
Grandfather Clause
Allowed people to vote only if their father or grandfather had voted before Reconstruction, this was discriminatory to AA as their relatives legally couldn't.
Literacy test
A test given to persons to prove they can read and write before being allowed to register to vote, used to discriminate against AA as they usually laced the education to pass these.
Poll tax
A requirement that citizens pay a tax in order to register to vote, most AA couldn't afford it.
Lynching
The illegal killing of suspected persons by vigilante mobs.
Busing
The transportation of public school students from areas where they live to schools in other areas to eliminate school segregation.
Affirmative Action
The policy of helping AA by form of positive actions, quotas for education and employment.
Pan-Africanism
The unity of all black Africans, regardless of national boundaries.
The Ku Klux Klan
A secret society created by white southerners in 1866 that used terror and violence to keep African Americans from obtaining their civil rights.
White Citizens' Council (WCC)
Mainly made of businessmen and professionals with a similar aim to the KKK.
They used violence alongside their economic privileges e.g. to pressure insurance companies to cancel policies of AA.
1865 - 13th Amendment
Abolished slavery which formally freed all slaves.
1866 - Civil Rights Act
Stated any person born or naturalised in the US was a US citizen regardless of race.
Overrode a veto from president Johnson, showing lack of federal support.
1867 - 1st Reconstruction Act
Passed to control confederate states, ended w/ Hayes-Tilden compromise.
1868 - 14th Amendment
Gave all free slaves their right to US citizenship and equal protection under law.
1870 - 15th Amendment
Prohibits denying a person's right to vote on the basis of race.
Gave AA men the right to vote.
1870 - 1st Enforcement Act
Banned discrimination based on race, colour or previous servitude.
1871 - 2nd Enforcement Act
Overturned state laws which prevented AA from voting.
Provided federal supervision of elections.
1871 - Civil Rights Act/3rd Enforcement Act/KKK act
Prohibited ethnic violence against AA.
1875 - Civil Rights Act
Prohibited discrimination in public accommodation/transport.
Prohibited exclusion from jury service.
SC declared act was unconstitutional in 1883.
1942 - Executive Order 8802
Banned racial discrimination in the employment of workers in defence industries and in Government.
1948 - Executive Order 9981
Desegregated the US armed forces.
1957 - Civil Rights Act
Established the CR commission.
A voting rights bill.
Led to the integration of public schools as it followed Brown V. Topeka (1954).
1960 - Civil Rights Act
Established federal inspections of local voter registration polls.
Introduced penalties for anyone who obstructed someone's attempt to register to vote.
1962 - Executive Order 11063
Banned segregation in Federal funded housing.
1964 - Civil Rights Act
Prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex and national origin by federal and state governments.
1965 - Voting Rights Act
Prohibited racial discrimination in voting.
Designed to enforce rights guaranteed by the 14th/15th amendments.
Outlawed literacy tests and poll taxes.
1968 - Civil Rights Act/Fair Housing Act
Prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of housing based on race, religion and national origin.
1987 - Civil Restoration Act
Recipients of federal funds must comply w/ CR laws in all areas.
This act overrode a veto by president Reagan, showing the lack of federal support.
1990 - Civil Rights Act
Sought to make it easier for litigants (a person involved in a lawsuit) in race or sex discrimination cases to win.
This act was, the first and only, vetoed by president Bush.
1991 - Civil Rights Act
Provided the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims.
Introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages, while limiting the amount a jury could award.
Essentially a watered down version of the 1990 Civil Rights Act.
Lincoln
1860-1865
Positives: Emancipation proclamation.
Legislation: 13th Amendment.
A. Johnson
1865-1869
Positives: in favour of state unity.
Negatives: against abolition, opposed measures to help former slaves.
Legislation: 1866 CR act, 1867 Reconstruction act, 1868 14th amendment.
Ulysses S. Grant
1869-1877
Positives: Worked closely w/ congress, used federal troops to support legislation, wanted to implement congressional reconstruction, worked to remove remnants of slavery.
Legislation: 1870 15th amendment, 1870 1st enforcement act, 1871 CR act, 1871 2nd & 3rd enforcement acts, 1875 CR act.
Rutherford B. Hayes
1877-1881
Negatives: The Hayes-Tilden compromise removed troops from south allowing for reconstruction legis. to be ignored, ended the reconstruction era.
Teddy Roosevelt
1901-1909
Positives: Invited Booker T. Washington to White House, employed AA to some gov & civil service departments.
Woodrow Wilson
1913-1921
Negatives: Segregated civil service workers, praised KKK during reconstruction, removed AA from Gov. posts.
Hoover
1929-1933
Positives: Last republican to have mass support from AA.
Negatives: Wanted to purge Repub.. party of AA to get southern votes.
F. D. Roosevelt
1933-1945
Positives: 'Black Cabinet', FEPC, employment for AA on equal opportunity, Executive order 8802.
Negatives: refused to support legis. on anti-lynching/ban on poll tax, aspects of new deal discriminatory, not concerned with desegregating the army.
Truman
1945-1953
Positives: committee on CR, desegregated army after war, addressed meeting of NAACP, appointed AA to federal judiciary, AA invited to presidential functions.
Negatives: Unable to pass anti-lynching laws.
Eisenhower
1953-1961
Positives: Enforced desegregation at Little Rock.
Negatives: didn't insist on desegregation after brown v. Topeka.
Legislation: 1957 CR act, 1960 CR act.
John F. Kennedy
1961-1963
Positives: End of seg. in interstate travel (61), end of seg. in Fed. housing projects (62), more AA in justice department, supported CR, drew up comprehensive bill of rights.
Negatives: would only interfere if Southern states couldn't maintain order, appointed pro-segregation to judicial positions.
Lyndon B. Johnson
1963-1969
Positives: Aspects of 'Great society' benefited AA, appointed Thurmond Marshall to SC (first AA).
Legislation: 1964 CR act, 1965 voting rights act, 1968 CR/fair housing act.
Nixon
1969-1974
Positives: programme of affirmative action, idea of black capitalism, reluctant but support of desegregation of schools.
Negatives: appointed conservatives to SC, against expansion of 1965 VR act, claimed USA was becoming lawless bc they tolerated CR groups, opposed bussing.
Carter
1977-1981
Positives: more AA to be federal judges than ever before, strengthened equal employment opportunities commission, 2 leading AA women in cabinet, former CR leader became ambassador to UN, support affirmative action.
Negatives: against integration.
Reagan
1981-1989
Positives: SC and Congress positive to CR so Reagan couldn't stop legis. only slow them down.
Negatives: less AA Fed. Judges than ever before, neg. views on CR, opposed 1965 VR act, opposed 1987/88 CR restoration act, didn't help AA at bottom of poverty trap.
Legislation: 1987/88 CR restoration act.
Bush
1989-1993
Positives: Appointed AA lawyer Clarence Thomas to SC.
Negatives: Vetoed a CR bill that would've made it easier to challenge job discrim., played on the fear of black crime.
Legislation: 1990 CR act (vetoed), 1991 CR act.
Position in 1865.
13th amendment - abolished slavery, freeing millions.
Former slaves legally free but not equal.
Many resulted to sharecropping.
US Gov. unsure what to do w/ millions of freed slaves.
Congressional Reconstruction.
Even if state gov. (South) and president (Johnson) didn't want change congress could take action.
The radical republicans established the Freedmen's Bureau in March 1865.
Joint Congressional Committee of Fifteen was (establ. Dec. 1865) which pushed the 14th/15th amendments through and also sanctioned military support in the South.
Grant worked more closely w/ congress, although violence was still present e.g. 1866 Memphis race riots where 46 AA were killed.
Effects of Congressional Reconstruction.
Did not achieve equality but more AA sat in assemblies and took part in public life.
The role of Fed. institutions promoting CR declined sharply after 1877 when the Hayes-Tilden compromise happened.
The role of state legislatures and Govs.
S. States passed Jim Crow laws and legalised segregation, in 1881 Tennessee segregated rail travel.
Segregation was not limited to the South as Northern cities also had segregated areas.
Measures against voting.
Legally AA could vote due to the 15th amendment, although states had the right to choose their own qualifications.
S. States introduced literacy tests, the grandfather clause and poll tax to prevent AA from registering to vote.
The violence/intimidation from white people would prevent most AA from even trying.
The Supreme Court as a barrier to civil rights.
Had the ability to declare legis. unconstitutional. E.g:
US v. Harris, in 1883 SC ruled that CR act of 1875 was unconstitutional and that private discrimination didn't fall under federal jurisdiction..
Wilkins v. Mississippi, in 1898 SC declared discriminatory voter registration laws were not unconstitutional.
1896, Plessy v. Ferguson.
The Supreme Court as a promoter of civil rights.
It was a gradual change in legal rulings from 1890-1944 which marked the change in attitudes to CR. E.g:
1944, Smith V. Allwright. SC ruled that it was unconstitutional to exclude AA voters from party primary voting.
1954, Brown v. Topeka.
1960, Boynton v. Virginia ruled that seg. on interstate bus was unconstitutional.
1971, Swann v. Charlotte Mecklenberg approved plans for enforced deseg. by busing children from predominantly white areas to areas with more AA.
Impact of WW2.
Nov. 1940 - Roosevelt passed EO 8587 which prohibited discrim. based on race, colour or creed and EO 8802 which banned racial discrim. in Gov. positions. HOWEVER neither of which aimed to extend CR.
Over 1 million AA in armed forces from 1941 - 1945.
Why such limited progress.
CR put on the back burner during depression in the 30s, WW2, Cold War.
Influence of Southern democratic senators which created a barrier in passing legis.
Would require lots of intervention in South, so fear of CW hatred's coming back.
The great migration had made it a national issue rather than just the south.
What had changed by the 1960s?
Continuing violence e.g. the murder of Emmett Till in Mississippi in 1955.
TV brought racial issues to American homes nationally.
AA were better organised and more skilful in decision making.
JFK appointed more AA to positions of authority but was slow to make CR his key issue.
1963, CR forced to the forefront due to ongoing violence and increasing effective campaigning which led to the march on Washington.
Dismantling of restrictive laws passed after 1877 was a key part of LBJ administration.
The black power movement.
Shift in focus to poverty, employment and education as AA had equality politically/legally (due to the 1965 VRA and the 1964 CRA).
Black supremacy and separation.
Rejection of non violence.
Exclusion of white people from CR movement.
No unified aims as it was made up of groups/individuals which focused on differing ways to progress.
Situation by the early 1990s.
Economic inequality continued e.g. 1989 - 77% of graduated whites high school opposed to 63% of AA.
1988 - AA unemployment was 5% higher than whites, this figure was higher than the 50s.
AA occupied 1/2 of the managerial/professional occupations of whites.
AA family income doubled from 1950 - 1989 to $16,800 the income gap between AA and whites increased far more.
Pay gap.
The Ku Klux Klan.
Founded as a secretly society in 1865, confederate general Nathan Bedford Forest was the Grand wizard.
Ideology/aims: white supremacy, undermine republican domination of the South.
Methods: intimidation, physical violence/lynching AA, property destruction, efforts made to prevent AA voting.
The revival of the KKK.
1915.
Group led by William Simmons which revived the costumes and attracted Protestant racists.
They weren't specifically targeting AA, but included Jews, Catholics, foreigners and opponents of the prohibition.
Klan membership feel from 4 million in 1920 to 30,000 by 1930 although racial attacks still continued.
W.E.B Du Bois
1868-1963.
Held studies on AA social situations and concluded change would only come from protests (clashed w/ Booker T. Washington).
1905, found Niagara Movement.
1909, helped to found NAACP.
Advocate for pan-Africanism and a separate black economy.
Booker T. Washington
1856-1915.
Educator (head of tuskgee institute for AA) and reformer.
Belief that hard work/education was the way for AA change.
Invited to the White House by T. Roosevelt and became an informal advisor to Roosevelt and Taft.
Marcus Garvey
1887 - 1940.
Established UNIA in Jamaica and branched out to USA (with 2 million members).
Advocated black economy/racial pride/separatism.
He supported the KKK and wanted to send all AA back to Africa on the Black Star Line.
Philip Randolph
1889 - 1979.
Established 'Brotherhood of sleeping car porters'.
Organised March on Washington in 1941 and 1963.
Pressured Roosevelt to issue EO 8802.
Martin Luther King Jr.
1929 - 1968.
Leader/spokesperson for Montgomery bus boycott (1955) which led to an unconstitutional ruling in 1956.
Established SCLC for a platform in south.
Advocate for non violent protesting.
Headed March on Washington (1963) which led to 1964 CR act.
Malcolm X
1925 - 1965.
Willing to achieve equality by 'any means necessary', opposite stance to MLK.
Criticised CR movement/racial integration.
Advocated separatism.
Member of NOI.
Thurgood Marshall
1908 - 1993.
1940 - became chief of NAACP legal defence.
1954 - lawyer in Brown v. Topeka which led to desegregation in school.
1967 - First AA man to serve on SC.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
When: 1909 - present.
Who: Du Bois, Ida B Wells, Thurgood Marshall, MLK.
Aims: suffrage rights, equal justice, better education.
Methods: legal, mainly chalenging jim crow laws.
Impact: improved rep. of Marshall, integration of schools.
The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
When: 1942 - present.
Who: James Farmer, Bayard Rustin, George Houser, Bernice Fisher.
Methods: non violent.
Impact: Began the Freedom rides in 1947, large part of MBB.
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
When: 1957 - present.
Who: MLK jr (1st president), E.D Nixon.
Methods: non violent protesting and campaigning, created mass arrests to create crisis situation that wasn't for negotiation.
Impact: March on Washington (1963), Selma voting rights campaign, March to Montgomery.
Nation of Islam (NOI)
When: 1930 - present.
Who: Wallace Fard Muhammad, Malcolm X, Muhammad Ali.
Methods: Conversion to Islam, emphasising self sufficiency, separation from white society.
Impact: Nothing.
Black Panther Party (BPP)
When: 1966 - 1982.
Who: Huey Newton, Bobby Seale.
Methods: patrolling AA neighbourhoods to protect residents from police brutality.
Impact: launches 35 survival programs, community helps e.g. education, legal aid.
Gilded Age benefits (1875 - 1896)
More opportunities for women outside of domestic work.
1870 - 1900: number of domestic servants fell by half, clerical jobs increased ten-fold, factory work from 18% → 22%.
1881, KOL offered support to women.
Mid 1880s, female union membership at 50,000.
Gilded Age limitations (1875 - 1896)
In industry, women concentrated in textiles + confined to unskilled labour.
Gender pay gap, worse in south.
Sweatshops had low wages, hazardous/oppressive conditions.
Limited support from male unionists, e.g. textile mill strike in Massachusetts (1882) saw no support.
AFL unsympathetic to women in 1890s, by 1900 only 2% of unionists were women.
New Deal benefits (1933 - 1941)
Women in positions of authority, e.g. Perkins as Secretary of Labor (1933 - 1945).
1940, more married women working than before.
Fed. Emergency Relief Act (1933) allowed financial aid + homeless women could seek refuge.
Farm security act (1937) improve the conditions of many poorer southern farmers.
Social Security Act (1935) - aid for single mothers.
New Deal limitations (1933 - 1941)
Women lost jobs, as men were the priority.
Falling wages hit domestic workers v. hard as they were largely unprotected by legis.
Gender pay gap.
1932, legis. against employing married women.
SSA (1935) - Excl. domestic workers.
Economy Act (1933) - prohib. Fed. Gov. employing family members
Black Power benefits (1960s)
Early 1970s, women 2/3 of BP membership.
Women had a leading part in Birmingham Busy Boycott, freedom rides + sit ins.
Many women organised March on Washington + attended.
BP 'sisters' wrote articles, gave legal advice + were speakers.
Black Power limitations (1960s)
BP inherently sexist + saw feminism as 'a white women's thing'.
1965, NOI condemned birth control.
AA women faced triple discrim, BP didn't address this concern.
Radicalism of party limited support.
Women called to walk behind men.
Prohibition
For many the intro to greater participation in public life.
1874, Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) which initially worked to ban alcohol.
Membership: 27k (1880) → 168k (1880s) → 800k (1920).
Rural political involvement
1870s, greater food production meant ↓ prices, smaller farms came under competition so farmers supported the Populist party.
Women active in rural protests e.g. the Farmers' alliance.
1883, Women's National Indian Association for NA rights formed.
Urban political involvement
Charity Organisation Society became a major outlet for urban women.
Led to many cities to appoint women to admin. public charities which gave them influence on a local level. E.g: passing of pension legis. (1900s).
1880s, pioneered the settlement house movement w/ 400 houses for poorer people.
Break with abolitionism
Initially inspiration came from abolitionism w/ founding of the American Equal Rights Association (AERA) in 1866 which aimed to remove restrictions on rights on racial/gender.
Split came when when AA gained the 14th/15th amendments, as women didn't benefit.
