Cognitive Psych First Exam Reviewer

Perception

The set of processes by which we recognize, organize and make sense of the sensations we receive from the environmental stimuli

Distal Object

object in the external world. The information in our sensory receptors, including sensory context, is all we need to perceive anything

Informational Medium

reflected light, sound waves, molecules, mechanical pressure, vibration

Proximal Stimulation

information from medium comes in contact with appropriate sensory receptors

Perceptual Object

what you “see”

Mental Percept

Mental representation of a stimulus that is perceived.

Bottom-Up and Top-Down

2 Types of Theories

Direct Perception

The information in our sensory receptors, including sensory context, is all we need to perceive anything

Ecological Perception

Sufficient Contextual Information exists to make perceptual information., no need for higher order of cognitive processing.

Direct Perception, Template Theories, Feature-Matching Theories, Recognition by Components

Types of Bottom-Up Theories

Constructive Perception, Intelligent Perception, Object Superiority Effect, Word Superiority Effect

Types of Top-Down Theories

Object-Centered, Viewer-Centered and Landmark-Centered

Types of Perception of Objects & Forms

Gestalt Laws

What laws are considered as the “Perception of Groups”?

Law of Pragnanz, Figure-Ground, Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure and Symmetry

Types of Gestalt Laws

Size Constancy and Shape Constancy

Types of Perceptual Constancy

Agnosia

are caused by damage to the border of the temporal and occipital lobes or restricted oxygen flow to areas of the brain, sometimes as a result of traumatic brain injury. (Difficulty in perceiving (WHAT pathway)

Ataxia

results from a processing failure in the posterior parietal cortex, where sensorimotor information is processed. It is assumed that higher order processes are involved because most patients’ disorders are complex and they can indeed grasp objects under certain circumstances. Inability to use visual system to guide movement (HOW pathway)

Template Theories

We have stored in our minds sets of templates.  The goal is to find a perfect match.

Feature-Matching Theories

We attempt to match features of a pattern to features stored in memory, rather than match a whole pattern/template or prototype.

Pandemonium Model

In it, metaphorical “demons” with specific duties receive and analyze the features of a stimulus. In Oliver Selfridge’s _, there are four kinds of demons: image demons, feature demons, cognitive demons, and decision demons.

Global Precedence Effect

occurs when an individual more readily identifies the global feature when presented with a stimulus containing both global and local features.

Local Precedence Effect

the participants more quickly identify the local features of the individual letters than the global ones, and the local features interfere with the global recognition in cases of contradictory stimuli.

Pandemonium Model, Global Precedence Effect and Local Precedence Effect

Types of Feature-Matching Theories

Constructive Perception

Perceives sensory information  + higher order thinking (higher order of thinking : e.g. role of learning). The perceiver builds (constructs) a cognitive understanding (perception of a stimulus)

Intelligent perception

The concepts of the perceiver and his or her cognitive processes influence what he or she sees. The perceiver uses sensory information as the foundation for the structure but also uses other sources of information to build the perception. This viewpoint also is known as _ because it states that higher-order thinking plays an important role in perception.

Configural Superiority Effect

by which objects presented in certain configurations are easier to recognize than the objects presented in isolation, even if the objects in the configurations are more complex than those in isolation.

Object Superiority Effect

in which a target line that forms a part of a drawing of a 3-D object is identified more accurately than a target that forms a part of a disconnected 2-D pattern

Word Superiority Effect

indicates that when people are presented with strings of letters, it is easier for them to identify a single letter if the string makes sense and forms a word instead of being just a nonsense sequel of letters.

Object-Centered

individual stores a representation of an object, independent of its appearance to the viewer.

Viewer-Centered

individual stores the way the object looks to him/her.

Landmark-Centered

information is characterized by its relation to a well-known or prominent item.

Law of Pragnanz

We tend to perceive any visual array in a way that most simply organizes the different elements into a stable and coherent form.

Figure-Ground

When perceiving a visual field, some objects (figures) seem prominent, and other aspects of the field recede into the background (ground).

Proximity

We tend to see objects that are close together as one group. We tend to "group" people per table.

Similarity

We tend to group objects based on their _.

Continuity

We perceive smoothly flowing or continuous forms rather than disrupted or discountinuous ones.

Closure

We perceptually close up or complete objects that are not in fact complete.

Symmetry

We tend to perceive objects as forming mirror images about their center.

Size Constancy

is the perception that an object maintains the same size despite changes in the size of the proximal stimulus. The size of an image on the retina depends directly on the distance of that object from the eye.

Shape Constancy

is the perception that an object maintains the same shape despite changes in the shape of the proximal stimulus. An object’s perceived shape remains the same despite changes in its orientation and hence in the shape of its retinal image.

image demons, feature demons

The __ receive a retinal image and pass it on to __ .

cognitive (thinking) demons

Each feature demon calls out when there are matches between the stimulus and the given feature. These matches are yelled out at demons at the next level of the hierarchy, the _. The _ in turn shout out possible patterns stored in memory that conform to one or more of the features noticed by the feature demons.

decision demon

A _ listens to the pandemonium of the cognitive demons. It decides on what has been seen, based on which cognitive demon is shouting the most frequently (i.e., which has the most matching features).

Depth

is the distance from a surface, usually using your own body as a reference surface when speaking in terms of depth perception. This use of depth information extends beyond the range of your body’s reach.

Monocular depth cues

can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with just one eye.

binocular depth cues

based on the receipt of sensory information in three dimensions from both eyes. _ use the relative positioning of your eyes.

binocular disparity

your two eyes send increasingly disparate (differing) images to your brain as objects approach you. Your brain interprets the degree of disparity as an indication of distance from you. In addition, for objects we view at relatively close locations, we use depth cues based on binocular convergence

binocular convergence

your two eyes increasingly turn inward as objects approach you. Your brain interprets these muscular movements as indications of distance from you.

Prosopagnosia

results in a severely impaired ability to recognize human faces

optic ataxia

which is an impairment in the ability to use the visual system to guide movement

Attention

● is the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thoughts. … It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.

● is the means by which we actively process a limited amount of information from the enormous amount of information available through our senses, our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes.

● allows us to use our limited mental resources judiciously.

it helps in monitoring our interactions with the environment, it assists us in linking our past (memories) and present (sensations) to give us a sense of continuity of experience. it helps us in controlling and planning for our future actions.

Three purposes in playing a causal role for cognition.

Signal detection and vigilance

We try to detect the appearance of a particular stimulus.

Search

We try to find a signal amidst distractors. refers to a scan of the environment for particular features—actively looking for something when you are not sure where it will appear.

Selective attention

We choose to attend to some stimuli and ignore others.

Divided attention

We prudently allocate our available attentional resources to coordinate our performance of more than one task at a time.

Signal Detection Theory

is a framework to explain how people pick out the few important stimuli when they are embedded in a wealth of irrelevant, distracting stimuli. One of the first ideas to suggest that physical sensations and cognitive processes, such as decision-making, interact to affect how we see the world was the _.

Vigilance

refers to a person's capacity to pay attention to a field of stimulation for an extended period of time while trying to detect an important target stimulus.

amygdala

When emotional cues are applied, vigilance is increased. It is believed that the _, which is involved in identifying emotional cues, is crucial in controlling vigilance.

thalamus

The _ has a role in vigilance. Bursts and the tonic state, two particular activation states, contribute to vigilance. While tonic discharges are related to better or higher vigilance, bursts are associated with lesser.

EEG measures

Vigilance levels can be evaluated via _. More low-frequency activity and smaller event-related potentials are related to lower vigilance

Distracters

nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus

difficulty

The number of targets and distracters affects the _ of the task

Feature Search

We simply scan the environment for that feature. Featural singletons, or objects with distinguishing characteristics, stand out in the arrangement

Feature-Integration Theory

• Supports that the Conjunction searches are more challenging than feature searches.

• Because humans have a mental map for expressing each potential feature of a stimulus across the visual field, feature searches are simple. For each stimulus in our visual field, we have a map for its color, size, form, and direction. Simply keep an eye on the relevant feature map for any activation anywhere in the visual field when looking for a target that is characterized by a single feature. This can be carried out simultaneously (in parallel).

• Conjunction searches are more challenging because they call for integrating information gathered from many feature maps. To conjoin each thing one at a time, attentional resources must be engaged sequentially. Conjunction searches are therefore slower and more challenging than feature searches.

Similarity Theory

_ is an alternative explanation for the difficulty of conjunction searches. This theory proposes that the difficulty of search tasks depends on the degree of similarity between the target and the distracters, not on the number of features to be integrated.

Guided Search Theory

Treisman's feature integration theory is an alternative to _. It suggests that all searches consist of two sequential steps: Parallel Stage and Serial Stage

Parallel stage

Depending on their properties, all potential targets are concurrently triggered.

Serial stage

Depending on the level of activation, the activated elements are assessed one after the other.

cocktail party dilemma

The ability to concentrate on one topic in an environment where several other talks are taking place at once is known as the _.

Selective attention (answer)

What is demonstrated in the cocktail party dilemma?

Broadbent’s Model

According to early selection theories, the filter is applied before the stimuli have even been given a meaning during the information processing process. This indicates that only a portion of stimuli will be further processed, while the remainder will be ignored.

Selective Filter Model

The _ of attention provides a more nuanced explanation of selective attention than Broadbent's original filter theory, and it has implications for the design of tasks that require people to focus on one thing and ignore others

Attenuation Filter Model

The _, according to Treis man's attenuation model, weakens (attenuates) unattended stimuli rather than entirely filtering them out, contrary to Broadbent's filter theory. It acknowledges that some information about unattended stimuli still processed, even if it is not consciously perceived.

Late Filter Model

According to the late selection model of attention put forward by Deutsch and Deutsch, stimuli are only rejected away after being examined for both their physical and semantic attributes. This implies that even inputs that are not consciously perceived are processed to some extent.

Preattentive processes

They can be employed to just take note of the unattended message's physical sensory qualities; they are unable to understand its relationships or meaning.

Controlled, attentive processes

They are executed serially and consume time and attentional resources, such as working memory. Additionally, they can be used to identify patterns in feature connections and combine bits into a mental image of an object.

Capacity Models of Attention

They help us explain how we can perform more than one attention-demanding task at a time.

Attentional-Resources Theory

one attentional resources may be specific to the modality (e.g., verbal or visual).

• Most people can listen to music and write simultaneously

• Listen to the news station (verbal) and write simultaneously (verbal)

Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) Effect

To obtain this effect, participants are asked to respond to stimuli once they appear, and if a second stimulus follows a first one immediately, the second response is delayed.

Resource Theory

As each of the complex tasks becomes increasingly automatized, performance of each task makes fewer demand on limited-capacity attentional resources.

Anxiety, Arousal, Task Difficulty, Skills

Factors that affect our ability to pay attention

Alerting

Being prepared to attend to some incoming event, and maintaining this attention.

● It also includes the process of getting to this state of preparedness.

● If the alerting system does not work properly, people develop symptoms of ADHD; in the process of regular aging, dysfunctions of the alerting system may develop as well.

Orienting

• Defined as the selection of stimuli to attend to.

• This kind of attention is needed when we perform a visual search.

• Dysfunction within this system can be associated with autism.

Executive Attention

• Attention includes processes for monitoring and resolving conflicts that arise among internal processes.

• These processes include thoughts, feelings, and responses.

• Dysfunction within this system is associated with Alzheimer’s disease, borderline personality disorder, and schizophrenia.

Arousal and attention, simultaneous and processive processing, and planning

According to the PASS model, there are three distinct processing units and each is associated with specific areas of the brain: (3)

Inspection Time

• The amount of time it takes you to inspect items and make a decision about them or the task requires concentrated bursts of focused attention.

• The _ is the length of time for presentation of the target stimulus after which the participant still responds with at least 90% accuracy.

• Nettelbeck found that shorter _s correlate with higher scores on intelligence tests.

Reaction Time

• Some investigators have proposed that intelligence can be understood in terms of speed of neuronal conduction or someone whose neural circuits conduct information rapidly.

• The time it takes to select one answer from among several possibilities.

• In such a task, one needs to attend in a focused and concentrated way on visual displays. Consider a typical choice-reaction-time paradigm.

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

People with _ have difficulties in focusing their attention in ways that enable them to adapt in optimal ways to their environment.

inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness

The three primary symptoms of ADHD are?

Hyperactive-impulsive, Inattentive, and a combination of hyperactive-impulsive and inattentive behavior.

There are three main types of ADHD, depending on which symptoms are predominant:

cognitive phenomena

Change blindness and inattentional blindness are _.

Change blindness

is the inability to detect changes in objects or scenes we're observing.

Inattentional blindness

is the failure to see things that are actually present.

Spatial Neglect

also known as hemi-neglect, is an attentional dysfunction. It occurs when individuals ignore the half of their visual field opposite to the hemisphere with a brain lesion, often in the right hemisphere.

Habituation

is a natural process where individuals become accustomed to a stimulus over time, paying less and less attention to it.

Dishabituation

occurs when a change in a familiar stimulus makes a person notice it again.

Sensory adaptation

is different from habituation; it occurs at the physiological level and is not consciously controlled.

automatic and controlled

Two types of cognitive processes

Automatic processes

are typically performed without conscious control, effort, or intention and can occur simultaneously or in no particular order (parallel processes).