Term Test 1 Psyc 2301

Intuition

the process of forming beliefs or explanations based on personal judgment, anecdotal experiences, or emotionally compelling events, without relying on systematic evidence or scientific reasoning.

Authority

is accepting something as true just because an important or respected person said it, without checking if there’s real evidence to support it.

Empiricism

the idea that we learn about the world by making careful observations and collecting evidence, not just by trusting feelings or what others say.

Scientific skepticism

A critical approach that questions the validity of claims unless they are supported by empirical evidence.

Rationalism

a belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response.

Universalism

The idea that scientific claims are evaluated based on objective criteria, not the personal attributes of the researcher.

Communality

The principle that scientific knowledge should be shared openly for the benefit and use of all.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify its findings and ensure reliability.

Disinterestedness

The ideal that scientists should strive to be objective and not let personal gain influence their work.

Organized skepticism

The norm of questioning and critically evaluating all claims and evidence in science.

Peer review

The process by which other experts in the field evaluate the quality and validity of a scientific study before publication.

Karl Popper

A philosopher of science who proposed that scientific theories must be falsifiable to be meaningful.

Falsifiable

Capable of being disproven by evidence or observation.

Unfalsifiable

Incapable of being tested or disproven through empirical observation.

Empirical question

A question that can be answered through systematic observation or experimentation.

Pseudoscience

Claims or beliefs presented as scientific but lacking empirical support and not adhering to the scientific method.

Goals of Scientific Research

Description:

Prediction:

Determining causes:

Explanation:

Criteria of Causal Claims

Covariation/correlation

Temporal precedence

Ruling out alternative explanations

Basic research

Driven by scientific curiosity

Applied research

Research aimed at solving specific, practical problems.

Program evaluation

The systematic assessment of the effectiveness and efficiency of a program or intervention.

Common-sense/folk-wisdom

Ideas or beliefs that people commonly accept as true based on tradition or everyday experience, not scientific evidence.

Hypothesis

A clear and testable guess about what will happen in a study.

Theory

A set of ideas that explains past findings and helps predict future ones

Explain/organize old observations

Using theories to make sense of results that researchers have already seen.

Generate new predictions about future observations, or new directions for future research

Using theories to guide new studies or guess what might happen next.

Parsimony

Choosing the simplest explanation that still works well.

Abstract

A short summary of the whole research paper.

Introduction

The part that explains the topic, past research, and the study’s goals.

Methods

A detailed description of how the study was done.

Results

The section that shows what the study found.

Discussion

The part where researchers explain what their findings mean.

References

A list of all the sources and studies mentioned in the paper.

Generalization

Applying the results of a study to people or situations beyond the ones actually studied.

Citations

Giving credit to the sources you used or mentioned in your work

Literature review

A summary of past studies on a topic to show what is already known.

PsychInfo

A database where you can find psychology research articles.

Web of Science

A research database that covers many subjects, including science and social science.

Google Scholar

A free tool that helps you search for academic articles online.

Wikipedia

A free online encyclopedia that anyone can edit, but may not always be reliable for scientific facts.

Research Hypothesis

A specific idea that a study is testing.

Prediction

What you expect to find in a study if your hypothesis is correct.

Zimbardo Stanford Prison Study

A famous study where students acted as guards or prisoners, showing how roles and power can affect behavior.

Milgram Obedience Study

A study where people followed orders to give shocks, showing how far people will go to obey authority.

Confederate

Someone who secretly helps the researcher by playing a role in the study.

Tri-Council Policy Statement, 2010 revision (TCPS2)

Canada's main rules for doing ethical research involving people.

Concern for welfare

Making sure research doesn’t harm the participants and supports their well-being

Risk-benefit analysis

Weighing the possible harm against the benefits of the study.

Benefits to participants

Good things that people may gain from being in a study.

Benefits to society

Helpful knowledge that comes from a study and can improve lives.

Risk of physical harm

The chance that a study could cause bodily injury.

Risk of psychological distress

The chance that a study could cause stress, fear, or sadness.

Risk of losing privacy and confidentiality

The chance that a person’s private information could be exposed.

Respect for persons

Treating people as individuals who can make their own choices.

Informed consent

Telling participants about the study so they can decide if they want to join.

Coercion

Pressuring someone to take part in a study when they might not really want to.

Secondary use of data

Using information from a previous study for a new purpose.

Withholding information

Not telling participants everything about the study at the start (sometimes allowed).

Deception

Misleading participants about what the study is really about.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of the study after it’s over.

Role-playing studies

Asking participants to imagine or act out a situation instead of experiencing it for real.

Stimulation studies

Creating a fake setting that feels real so researchers can study behavior.

Honest studies

Research where participants know everything and are not misled.

Justice

Making sure that the benefits and burdens of research are shared fairly.

Research Ethics Board (REB)

A group that checks if a study is ethical before it begins.

Exempt research

Studies that are so low-risk they don’t need full ethics review.

Minimal risk research

Studies where the risk is no greater than everyday life.

Greater than minimal risk research

Studies with higher risk that need more careful review.

Three Rs for Animal Research

Replacement: replacing when possible

Reduction: using fewer animals

Refinement: treating them as well as possible

Ethics codes

Rules that guide researchers on how to behave responsibly.

Fraud

Faking or changing data to make research look better.

Ethical data analysis

Looking at data honestly and fairly, without twisting the results.

Plagiarism

Using someone else’s words or ideas without giving credit.

Population

The whole group of people you want to learn about.

Sample

A smaller group taken from the population to be studied.

Sampling

The process of choosing people from the population to be in a study.

Representative Sample

A sample that looks like the population in important ways.

External Validity

How well the results of a study apply to other people, places, or times.

Sampling frame

The list of people you can choose from when making a sample.

Response rate

The percentage of people who answer a survey or take part in a study.

Probability sampling

A sampling method where every person in the population has a known chance of being chosen.

Simple random sampling

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being picked, like drawing names from a hat.

Stratified random sampling

The population is split into groups (like age or gender), and random samples are taken from each group

Cluster sampling

Instead of picking individuals, whole groups (clusters) are randomly chosen (like classrooms or cities).

Non-probability sampling

A sampling method where some people may have no chance of being picked, and it’s not random.

Convenience sampling

Choosing people who are easy to reach, like classmates or friends.

Purposive sampling

Choosing people for a specific reason, like experts or those with certain experience.

Quota sampling

Picking people from different groups until a certain number is reached, but not randomly.

Sample size

The number of people or things included in a study.

Confidence intervals

A range that likely includes the true result for the whole population, based on the sample.

Sampling error

The small differences between a sample result and what’s true for the whole population.

Power

The chance that a study will find a real effect if there is one.