S2 AP HUMAN FINAL

Agriculture

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modifying the environment to raise plants or animals for food or other uses’

Extensive agriculture

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agriculture that uses small amounts of labor on a large area of land

Intensive agriculture

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agriculture that uses a lot of labor on a small area of land

Shifting cultivation

subsistence agriculture form used in tropical areas that cuts down vegetation for burning (__**Slash and Burn**__) which provides nourishment to the soil – every few years the farmer must move to a new location as the nutrients are gone and repeat

Ranching

commercial agriculture that allows livestock to wander a large area to feed using for meat or wool

Nomadic herding

raising animals and traveling from place to place with them to find pasture for their animals

Market gardening

Small scale food production (fruits/veggies) for sale at local markets.

Plantation agriculture

cash crops (cotton, sugar, coffee, tea) grown on large estates, usually for export

mixed crop/livestock systems:

combination of cash crops and livestock to complement land and labor demands across the year

Clustered

a pattern of rural settlement in which the houses and farm buildings of each family are situated close to each others' fields and surround the settlement

Disperse

settlement pattern with people living relatively far from each other on their farms

Linear settlement

 a rural land use pattern that creates a long, narrow settlement around a river, coast, or road that looks like a line

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Long lot

a rural land use pattern that divides land into long, narrow lined up along a waterway or road

Metes and bounds:

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a system of describing parcels of land where the metes are the lines (including angle and distance that surround the property) and bound describes features such as a river or public road

Surveying

Examining and measuring the surface of the Earth for planning, preparing to build, or mapping

Township and range:

a system of dividing large parcels of where the townships describe how far north or south from the center point

Fertile Crescent

a  crescent-shaped area in Southwest Asia where settled farming first began to emerge leading leading to the rise of cities

Columbian Exchange

a widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations, communicable diseases, and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres that was launched by Columbus's voyages

First Agricultural Revolution

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time when people first domesticate plants and animals which allows people to live in one place

Domestication

the process of taming plants or animals for human use

Second Agricultural Revolution:

coincides with the Industrial Revolution; increasing yield and access through machines and transportation

Effects of the Second Agricultural Revolution: New technology, Led to increased food production, Better diet, longer life, and more people available for work in factories, Shifting demographics (moving to cities, less farmers)

Green Revolution

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 the spread of new technologies like high yield seeds and chemical fertilizers to the developing world in the 1960s and 1970s

Positive of Green Revolution

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* Able to grow more crops on same amount of land which decreases food prices
* More crops grown on same size land
* Improvement in variety

Negative Green Revolution

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* Destroying local land and traditional modes of agricultural production
* Decreasing biodiversity (hybrid seeds diminish local plant diversity)
* Impact of chemicals

subsistence agriculture:

form of farming in which nearly all of the crops or livestock raised are used to maintain the farmer and the farmer's family, leaving little, if any, surplus for sale or trade.

Commercial Agriculture

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he production of crop for sale and profit

Monoculture

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Growing one crop in a farm system at a given time

Mono-Cropping

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Growing one crop in a farm system year after year.

Bid-rent theory

a geographic theory that states the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases

Commodity Chain

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activities involved in the creation of a product: design, production of raw materials, manufacturing and assembly, distribution

Agribusiness

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system of commercial agriculture that links various industries to the farm

Economies of scale

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cost advantages that come producing a large amount of an item

Von Thünen’s model

helps to explain rural land use by emphasizing the importance of transportation costs associated with distance from the market. rings distribute various farming activities into concentric rings around a central market city.

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* Dairy and gardening is close to the center because it is a perishable good, where the farmer can maximize the profit, intensive agriculture 
* Forests are close to the market, because people need it for fuel and This needed to be close and is expensive to transport
* Extensive agriculture (grains, field crops) do not perish as quickly as vegetables and milk and need plenty space to grow 
* Livestock and ranching further from the market for cheap land (need more of it and transportation is cheap)

Global Supply Chain

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a worldwide network to maximize profits in production

Export commodity

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goods sent from one country to another for sale ( Some countries have become highly dependent on one or more export commodities including Haitian coffee, Sri Lankan Tea, and Cuban Sugar)

Land cover change

process by which agricultural areas are lost to development

Conservation

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 the protection of wildlife and natural resources

Deforestation

human-driven and natural loss of trees for not forest use

Desertification

the process of a dry area becoming drier and losing vegetation

**Irrigation**

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moving water to where you need it

Draining Wetlands

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drainage for agricultural practices

Pastoral nomadism

herding animals and migrating with them to find pasture areas without a permanent pasture area

Soil salinization

the slow build up of salt in soil, particularly in irrigated areas, that makes soil unable to grow plants

Terrace farming

method of growing crops on the sides of hills or mountains by planting on man-made steps (terraces)Agricultural Biotechnolog

Agricultural Biotechnology

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the use of scientific tools and techniques to modify plants and animals (Pesticide resistant crops, Antibiotics, Biofuels)

GMO

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plants or animals whose DNA has been genetically modified, often through a combination of DNA from similar plant or animal species for desired traits.

Aquaculture

raising of fish and shellfish in ponds and controlled saltwater hatcheries raising of fish and shellfish in ponds and controlled saltwater hatcheries

Value Added Foods

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foods that have increased in value due to alterations in production, size, shape, appearance, location, and/or convenience

Organic Farming

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crops produced without the use synthetic or industrially produced pesticides and fertilizers or genetically engineered seeds

Fair Trade

trade between MDC and LDC in which fair prices are paid to the producers

community-supported agriculture (CSA):

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individuals who pledge support to a farm operation so that growers and consumers provide mutual support

Urban farming

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integrating growing crops or raising animals into an urban ecosystem

Dietary Shifts

movement from processed foods, meat, and sugars towards one more based in fruits and vegetables

Food Insecurity

the state of being without reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food

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Food Desert

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geographic area where large grocery stores are scarce or missing and residents have limited access to fresh nutritious foods. Typically found in urban, low-income neighborhoods

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**Women in Agriculture**

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* Women are frequently denied loans or financial support, cannot afford tuition or fees; or rural communities lack funding to provide schools.
* Women may be unable to obtain or access inputs to improve productivity (e.g., land, animals, equipment, seeds, fertilizer, or infrastructure).
* Women practicing subsistence agriculture may not be able to generate a surplus.
* Impacts of exposure to environmental hazards (agricultural pollution, chemicals, groundwater pollution) that cause health problems for women and children which have an economic impact (household, local, or national scale).
* In many societies women hold agricultural knowledge and skills passed down to daughters.
* In many societies women represent a spiritual ideal of fertility that is tied to beliefs regarding agricultural productivity.
* Laws and government policies preventing women from acquiring land tenure, owning, or inheriting land.
* Women may lack access to political processes (voting), and institutions (representative government); or females lack political power to improve law and policy affecting women’s issues.

urbanization:

refers to the movement of people to towns/cities and the resulting expansion of the rural countryside

* influences on urbanization: changes in transportation and communication, population growth, migration, economic development, and government policies

site:

the actual physical qualities of the place that a city occupies which can influence origin, function, and growth e.g. coastal plain, valley, mountains

situation:

the relative location of a city (what is it near) which can influence origin, function, and growth e.g. located near shipping routes (Hong Kong, Singapore)

megacity:

a large city with over 10 million people and found increasingly in the periphery and semi-periphery e.g. LDCs: Mumbai, São Paulo, Jakarta, Lima, Shenzhen, MDC: Paris

meta-city:

a large city with over 20 million people and found increasingly in the periphery and semi-periphery e.g. LDCs: Delhi, Mexico City, Cairo, Beijing, Mumbai MDCs: Tokyo

suburbanization:

the transformation of large areas of rural land to urban uses

suburb:

a residential area located on the periphery of a city

suburban sprawl:

unrestricted suburban growth and development over large areas spreading out from a city in which cars provide primary source of transportation

edge city:

a concentration of residential and economic (business, shopping, entertainment) activity located in the suburbs

exurb:

a residential area beyond the suburbs, often in more rural areas

world city:

city that functions as a service center of the world economy driving globalization at the top of the urban hierarchy (hamlet, village, town, city, world city) e.g. New York City, London, Tokyo, Paris

network:

a system of interconnected people, goods, information, transportation, communication, finance

globalization:

the process of increased interconnectedness among countries most notably in the areas of economics, politics, and culture

urban hierarchy:

settlements ranked by population, number of services and sphere of influence e.g. hamlet, village, town, city

rank-size rule:

the idea that the population of a city or town will be inversely proportional to its rank in the urban hierarchy if the largest city in a country contained 1 million citizens then the: 2nd largest city would contain 500,00 (1 million/2) 3rd largest city would contain 333,333 (1 million/3) 4th largest city would contain 250,000 (1 million/4)

primate city:

a country's largest city, at least twice as large as the next largest city and more than twice as significant (usually the capital city) and represents national culture e.g. Paris, France and London, England

Christaller’s Central Place Theory (early 1933)

• explains the distribution, size, location, and interaction of settlements in an urban system • settlements provide a set of goods and services to their hinterland, which is the surrounding market area • larger settlements are fewer and farther apart and serve a large market area, providing low order goods as well as high-order goods • smaller centers serve smaller market areas generally providing low order goods • low-order goods: products that are replenished frequently such as food and other routine household items • high-order goods: specialized items such as cars, furniture, fine jewelry, and household appliances that are bought less often • threshold: the minimum number of people needed for a business to prosper • range: the maximum distance people

urban models

models that are useful for explaining internal structures of cities

Burgess Concentric Zone Model E.W. Burgess (1923)

a spatial model of the American city that suggests the existence of five concentric rings around a CBD (Central Business District) • center circle: the city grows outward beginning with the Central Business District • second ring: the zone in transition where industry and poorer-quality housing are located (usually new immigrants to the city in small quarters as well as single individuals in rooming houses) • third ring: zone of modest older homes typically for the working class • fourth ring: zone of better residences where more spacious houses for middle-class families • fifth ring: commuter zone made up of people who work in the center and choose to live in the suburbs

Hoyt Sector Model Homer Hoyt (1939)

a spatial model of the American city that suggests that land-use areas conform to a wedge-shaped pattern focused on the downtown core (CBD)

• focus is on residential patterns and where the wealthy choose to live • the city develops in a series of sectors • at the center: Central Business District • as the city grows, activities expands in a wedge, or sector, from the center • industrial and retailing activities develop outward from the CBD • once a district with "high-class" housing is established, the most expensive houses are built on the outer edge of that district further from the center • middle class residential sectors develop in proximity to high rent residential and then low-class residential nearest to industrial and transportation zones

Multiple Nuclei Model Chauncey Harris and E.L. Ullman (1945)

a spatial model that shows the mid 20th century American city consisting of several land-use zones (nodes) arranged around a CBD (Central Business District)

• the CBD acts as the nucleus within the metropolitan area upon which activities revolve in various land-use zones or nodes • examples of these nodes include: ports, neighborhood business centers, universities, airport, and parks • some activities go with particular nodes while others do not, for example, a university node may attract well-educated residents, bookstores, and copy places, or, the airport may attract hotels and warehouses • incompatible land use activities will not be clustered together, for example, industries will not be placed near high-class housing

Galactic City Model (Peripheral Model)

a spatial model in which American urban areas consist of a central city surrounded by a large suburban area, shopping malls, office parks, industrial areas, and service complexes tied together by a beltway, or ring road

Latin American City Model

a spatial city model that includes a prestigious, commercial axis (spine) which emanates outward from the CBD and is surrounded by a peripheral area containing squatter settlements; the city structure can be attributed to colonialism, the rapid rise of industrialization, and rapid population increase

Southeast Asian City Model

a spatial city model that includes an old colonial port zone that is the focal point of the city reflecting a city oriented around exports, and radiating outward from the port zone are the Western commercial zone and Alien commercial zone

Sub-Saharan African City Model

a spatial city model that is difficult to formulate due to the imprint of European colonialism, but often consists of a colonial CBD as well as a traditional CBD, and a market zone that is surrounded by squatter settlements (informal satellite townships)

urban renewal:

the redevelopment of areas within an urban area, typically neighborhoods in economic decline

gentrification:

the restoration of deteriorated urban areas by wealthier (mostly middle-income) people who move into, renovate, and restore housing and sometimes businesses

industrialization:

process that occurs when countries evolve from primarily agricultural producing basic, primary goods to one based on mechanized mass manufacturing of goods (craftsmen are replaced by assembly lines)

spread of industrialization:

caused food supplies to increase and populations to grow created new industrial jobs in the cities changed social class structures caused investors in industry to seek out more raw materials and new markets contributed to the rise of colonialism and imperialism

primary sector:

economic activity that involves extracting (raw materials) or harvesting (food) products e.g. gathering industries (renewable resources): agriculture, forestry, hunting and gathering, fishing, grazing e.g. extractive industries (nonrenewable resources): mining, quarrying

secondary sector:

economic activity that processes raw materials and transforms them into finished goods e.g. manufacturing industries

tertiary sector:

economic activity that provides services e.g. health, legal, education, restaurants, stores

quaternary sector:

economic activity that involves collecting, processing & manipulation of information & capital e.g. finance, insurance, computer services

quinary sector:

economic activity consisting of high-level decision making and advancement of human capacities e.g. scientific research, higher education, government

core:

countries where economic power (wealth, innovation, technology) is concentrated that control and benefit from the global market on which periphery and semi-periphery countries depend e.g. U.S., Western European countries, Canada, Australia, Japan

semi-periphery:

countries that are industrializing that exert more power in the world economy than the periphery, but are dominated to some degree by the core

periphery:

countries with low levels of economic productivity and a disproportionately small share of the world’s wealth with weaker state institutions, lower standards of living and are often dependent on the core e.g. Sub-Saharan African countries (except South Africa), parts of South America and Asia

break of bulk point:

the transfer of transported cargo from one kind of carrier to another e.g. port: from ship to truck

Least Cost Theory:

Alfred Weber

• theory that describes the optimal location of an industry in relation to costs of transport, labor, and relative advantages of agglomeration

• an industry is located where it can minimize its costs, and therefore maximize its profits

agglomeration:

the clustering of businesses that can benefit from close proximity because they share skilled-labor e.g. auto industry in Michigan technology industry in northern California insurance industry in Connecticut

footloose industries:

industry in which the location is not impacted by the cost of transporting either raw materials or finished products e.g. software, insurance, semiconductors, computer chips, e-commerce

GDP (gross domestic product):

measurement of the total value of goods and services produced within the borders of a country during a specific time period, usually one year

GNP (gross national product):

measurement of the total value of goods and services produced within the borders of a country plus the net income from companies that are located outside the country and foreign investments during a specific time period, usually one year

GNI per capita (gross national income per capita):

measurement of the total value of goods and services produced within the borders of a country plus the net income from companies that are located outside the country and foreign investments, but minus dividend payments and indirect business taxes during a specific time period, usually one year, divided by the population