Belief Systems in World Civilizations: The Classical Period (1000 B.C.E.-500 C.E.)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from the Classical-period belief systems (Polytheism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Confucianism, Daoism, Hinduism, Buddhism) with concise definitions.

Polytheism

Belief in many gods/spirits; gods as personifications of nature; includes animism; earliest religions across many regions; persisted where Christianity/Islam hadn't evangelized; examples include Sumerian, Shang, Greek, Roman, Germanic, Mayan, Aztec, African; related to the rise of a priestly caste.

Animism

Belief that natural objects, places, and phenomena have spirits or life-like qualities.

Judaism

Monotheistic faith of Hebrews/Ancient Israelites; belief in one God; covenant with Abraham; sacred texts include Torah, Mosaic Law, and Talmud; diaspora began ~130 CE; influenced Christianity and Islam; patriarchal; no widespread hierarchical structure.

Covenant with Abraham

A special agreement between God and Abraham defining the relationship and chosen status of the Jewish people.

Torah

Sacred Jewish writings and law; part of the Hebrew Bible; central guidance for Jewish belief and practice.

Mosaic Law

Divine law given to Moses, outlining ethical and ritual commandments.

Talmud

Collection of oral laws and interpretations of Mosaic Law used to guide Jewish practice.

Diaspora

Dispersion of the Jewish people outside the land of Israel; began under Roman rule around 130 CE and spread broadly in the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe.

Messiah

In Judaism, a future anointed leader who would restore Israel and bring about God's kingdom.

Christianity

Monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Jesus; spread from Palestine through the Roman world; belief in Jesus as Messiah and savior by grace through faith; Gospels and Church Fathers foundational; later institutionalized and expanded, leading to a universal church.

Gospels

Canonical accounts of Jesus’ life and teachings in the New Testament.

Paul

Early Christian missionary whose writings helped spread Christianity to non-Jews and shaped Christian doctrine.

Church Fathers

Early theologians who interpreted and defended Christian doctrine.

Schism (1054)

Formal split between Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) branches of Christianity over leadership and certain tenets.

Islam

Monotheistic faith founded by Muhammad on the Arabian Peninsula; belief in Allah; Qur’an as sacred text; spread across the Middle East, Africa, and beyond.

Allah

Arabic name for God in Islam.

Muhammad

Prophet who received revelations from God; regarded as the Seal of the Prophets.

Qur’an

Sacred scripture of Islam, believed to be the verbatim words of God as revealed to Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam

Core practices: Shahada (faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat (charity), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).

Sharia

Islamic law code derived from the Qur’an and Hadith, governing many aspects of Muslim life.

Sunni

Majority branch of Islam; historically followers of the Umayyad community with emphasis on consensus.

Shi’a

Branch of Islam that emphasizes leadership lineage through Ali; minority group with distinct religious practices and beliefs.

Confucianism

Philosophical/ethical system from China (Confucius, Analects; Mencius) focused on jen (humaneness), filial piety, and social harmony; emphasizes five key relationships and government based on virtue; not a religion but a guide for conduct.

Jen (Ren)

Confucian virtue meaning benevolence or humaneness that binds people.

Filial Piety

Respect and duties of children to parents; family as the teacher of social roles; seen as the foundation of social order.

Five Relationships

Ruler–subject, Parent–Child, Husband–Wife, Older/Younger Sibling, Friend–Friend; framework for social harmony.

Mandate of Heaven

Belief that heavenly powers grant rulers the right to govern; legitimacy depends on virtue and approval.

Ancestor Worship

Ritual respect and offerings to ancestors, integral to Confucian-influenced culture.

Daoism (Daoism/Taoism)

Philosophical system centered on living in accordance with the Dao (the Way); emphasizes harmony with nature, Yin/Yang, and naturalness; anti-activist; later blends with folk beliefs and polytheism; influential in Chinese arts.

Tao (Dao)

The Way; indefinable principle that underlies the universe and natural order.

Yin and Yang

Complementary opposites in nature whose balance shapes all phenomena.

Hinduism

Origins with Indo-Aryan invaders (c. 1700–1500 BCE); sacred texts include Vedas, Upanishads, Ramayana, and Mahabharata; belief in a single ultimate reality (Brahman) with many deities; concepts of karma, dharma, reincarnation, and moksha (liberation).

Brahman

The ultimate, formless reality in Hindu belief; source of all that exists.

Atman

The individual soul; realization of oneness with Brahman leads to moksha.

Karma

Moral law of cause and effect that shapes future rebirths.

Moksha

Liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara); union with Brahman.

Dharma

Duties, laws, and moral rules guiding individuals to achieve salvation.

Varna (Caste)

Rigid four-class social system organizing society and spiritual progress.

Reincarnation

Belief that the soul is reborn into a new body after death.

Vedas

Ancient sacred scriptures of Hinduism, foundational liturgy and philosophy.

Upanishads

Philosophical texts exploring ultimate reality and the nature of the self.

Ramayana

Epic poem recounting the adventures of Prince Rama and his wife Sita; important Hindu narrative.

Mahabharata

Epic that includes the Bhagavad Gita; significant Hindu literary and philosophical work.

Sati

Historical practice of widow self-immolation or self-sacrifice at the funeral pyre of a husband.

Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)

Founder of Buddhism; prince who attained enlightenment and shared the path to liberation.

Four Noble Truths

Truths asserting that life involves suffering, suffering is caused by desire, cessation of desire ends suffering, and the Eightfold Path leads to that cessation.

Nirvana

Cessation of desire and liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Eightfold Path

List of ethical and practical steps (right knowledge, intention, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, meditation) to end suffering.

Mahayana

Buddhist branch emphasizing universal salvation and celestial Buddhas; introduces additional texts and deifications of the Buddha.

Theravada

Buddhist branch focusing on original teachings and individual enlightenment; closer to early Buddhist doctrine.

Zen Buddhism

School of Buddhism emphasizing sudden enlightenment through meditation, developed in China and later in Japan.

Ashoka

Mauryan emperor who promoted and helped spread Buddhism across Asia.