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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
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Chapter 9: Communism and Postcommunism

Communism, Equality, and the Nature of Human Relations

The Basics of Communism

  • Two definitions of communism
    • A political-economic system in which all wealth and property are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, and, ultimately, the need for political institutions such as the state.
    • A political ideology that advocates such a system.
  • Traces back to German philosopher Karl Marx
  • More than ideology, communism also proposes a theory of history.

The Theory of Communism

  • Empirical
    • Attempts to explain how societies operate (how the world works)
    • Includes theories about why economies grow, why people start revolutions, and so on
  • Normative
    • An ideology about how society should function
    • Includes prescriptions about how workers should organize and overthrow market-based systems.

Key Marxist Terms

In Focus: Terms in Marxist Theory

  • Base - the economic system of a society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production).
  • Bourgeoisie - the property-owning class.
  • Communism - according to Marxists, the final stage of history once capitalism is overthrown and the dictatorship of the proletariat destroys its remaining vestiges. In communism, state and politics would disappear, and society and the economy would be based on equality and cooperation.
  • Dialectical materialism - process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary. The existing base and superstructure (thesis) would come into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis). This would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure (synthesis).
  • Dictatorship of the proletariat - temporary period after capitalism has been overthrown during which vestiges of the old base and superstructure are eradicated.
  • False consciousness - failure to understand the nature of one’s exploitation; essentially amounts to “buying into” the superstructure.
  • Proletariat - the working class
  • Superstructure - all noneconomic institutions in a society (for example, religion, culture, national identity). These ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current system of exploitation.
  • Surplus value of labor - the value invested in any human-made good that can be used by another individual. Exploitation results when one person or group extracts the surplus value from another.
  • Vanguard of the proletariat - Lenin’s argument that because of false consciousness, an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution; otherwise, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise.

The Basics of Communist Theory

  • Human history viewed as interaction between base and superstructure.
    • Base: the economic system of society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production).
    • Superstructure: all noneconomic institutions in a society (e.g., religion, culture, national identity); these ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current of exploitation.
  • People suffer from “false consciousness,” or a failure to understand their exploitation because the superstructure deludes them.

Revolution and the “Triumph” of Communism

Class Conflict and the Dialectic

  • Dialectical materialism: process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary
  • Marxist view of history
    • The existing base and superlative (thesis) comes into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis).
    • This would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure and replacing it with a new one (synthesis).

The Classes in Conflict in the Modern Era

  • Bourgeoisie: the property-owning class
    • Own the “means of production”; exploits workers
  • Proletariat: the working class
    • The labor force adding value to production; exploited by bourgeoisie
    • Alienated from labor and from themselves
    • Ultimately will “gain consciousness” and overthrow system

Marx’s Phases of Human History

In Focus: Marx’s Phases of Human History

  1. Feudalism
  2. Capitalist democracy
  3. Dictatorship of the proletariat
  4. Communist utopia
  • At each stage, changes in technology increase tensions between the ruler and the ruled.
  • Ultimately, a major revolution occurs, and societies enter a new phase.

What Comes after the Communist Revolution?

  • Capitalism and liberal democracy are eliminated.
    • Transformation of base; rejection of false consciousness
  • Temporary “dictatorship of the proletariat”
    • May be directed by the “vanguard of the proletariat”
  • Ultimately, the state “withers away.”
    • Replaced with Communist utopia.

Putting Communism into Practice

Major Names in Communism

  • Communist theorist: Karl Marx
  • Communist practitioners: Lenin, Stalin, Mao, and Castro
  • Communist reformists: Deng Xiaoping and Mikhail Gorbachev

In Focus: Important Figures in Communism

  • Karl Marx
  • Lenin
  • Joseph Stalin
  • Mao Zedong
  • Deng Xiaoping
  • Fidel Castro
  • Mikhail Gorbachev

Moving from Theory to Practice

  • Marx: No blueprint for communist government
    • Expected anarchic utopia to emerge
  • Marxism takes off in agricultural countries
    • Two notable followers: Lenin (Russia) and Mao Zedong (China)
    • How to explain this deviation?
    • Lenin adds the “vanguard of the proletariat”: Lenin’s argument that because of false consciousness, an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution; otherwise, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise.

Different Communist Regimes Emerged

  • All were non-democracaies.
  • The “typical” communist regime: one-party rule
    • Communist Parties as the “vanguard” running the “dictatorship of the proletariat”
    • Examples: USSR, most of Eastern Europe, China
  • Other communist reinterpretations
    • Personal or monarchical rule (North Korea)
    • Military rule (Myanmar/Burma)

Key Features of Communist States

  • Elite-based, centralized authority under Communist Party
    • Often written into constitution; state institutions mirrored in the parties
  • Co-optation used to maintain control
    • Nomenklatura: politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the Communist Party
  • Monopoly of power and coercion
  • Banning of “hostile” organizations

Key Features of Communist Party Structure

  • Party structure often mirrors state structure.
  • The party hierarchy
    • General secretary: chief executive
    • Politburo (“Political Bureau”): top policy-making executive body of a communist party
    • Central Committee: legislative-like body of a communist party
    • Local cells: basic party organizations to which members are assigned

Communist Political Economy

Main Features of Communist Political Economies

  • Collectivization and nationalization
    • Private property eliminated
    • State-controlled industry and agricultural communes
  • Markets replaced with central planning
    • Central planning: a communist economic system in which the state explicitly allocates resources by planning what should be produced and in what amounts, the final price of goods, and where they should be sold.
  • Extensive public goods and social services.

The Major Flaws of Communist Economics

  • Too many things for bureaucracy to plan
    • Regular supply shortages
    • Domino effect: shortages in steel → shortages in bolts → shortages in cars
  • Government (planners) and free markets prioritize different things.
    • Government planning focused on military and industry; few consumer goods produced
  • Lack of worker and business incentives
    • Factories and farms focused on hitting quotas rather than producing quality goods or profiting from surplus.
    • Workers did not fear losing jobs; businesses did not fear going bankrupt.

Consequences of Communist Political Economies

  • Massive supply shortages
    • Included food shortages, sometimes resulting in mass starvation.
  • Lower quality of life
    • Inequality low and extreme poverty eliminated, but benefits were unevenly distributed in society.
    • Fewer consumer goods that primarily went to nomenklatura.
  • Economic stagnation: innovation and efficiency completely disappear.
    • Products that were produced were inefficient and often low quality.
    • Industry fell behind the West.

Wrapping It Up: Communist Political Economy

In Focus: Communist Political Economy

  • Markets and property are wholly absorbed by the state.
  • Central planning replaces the market mechanism.
  • Individual property rights, individual profit, unemployment, competition between firms, and bankruptcy are all virtually eliminated.
  • Most of the nation’s means of production are nationalized.
  • The economy functions in essence as a single large firm whose sole employees are the public.
  • The state provides extensive public goods and social services, including universal systems of public education, healthcare, and retirement.
  • Inequality and poverty are reduced but not eliminated.

Societal Institutions under Communism

Societal Transformations: The Communist Goals

  • Religion: eliminate the “opiate of the masses”
    • Places of worship were closed, converted to other uses, or destroyed.
  • Gender and sexuality: eliminate exploitation
    • Promote equal opportunities for men and women.
    • Eliminate repressive institutions (such as marriage) in favor of “free love.”
  • Nationalism and ethnic identity: eliminate mechanisms that “divide and conquer.”

Societal Transformations: The Reality

  • Religion: goes underground
  • Gender and sexuality: mixed results
    • More job opportunities and political rights for women
    • Traditional sexuality and familial roles remain very conservative.
  • Nationalism and ethnic identity: strengthened
    • Nationalism actively promoted by the state.
    • Minority resentments fueled by unequal treatments.

Wrapping It Up: Societal Institutions under Communism

InstitutionIdealReality
ReligionReligion, “the opiate of the masses,” will disappear.Religion was suppressed but not eliminated.
Gender RolesMen and women will be economically, socially, and politically equal.Opportunities for women increased, but women were still expected to fulfill traditional duties in the home.
SexualityRepressive institutions such as marriage will be replaced by “an openly legalized system of free love.”Many communist countries remained very seuxally conservative.
NationalismNationalism, exposed as part of the elite’s “divide and conquer” strategy, will be eliminated.Though discouraged from doing so, people clung to old national and ethnic identities.

The Collapse of Communism

The Rise and Fall of Communism

  • Communism was a major political force for most of the twentieth century.
  • 1989-1991 Communism falls in many countries.

By 1980s, Leaders Recognize Need to Reform

  • Economic problems
    • Stagnation; rising government debt
    • High inequality; rising food costs
  • Politics: stagnant (and often old) leadership
  • International crises
    • 1979: USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan exposes military weakness.
    • U.S./USSR rivalry heats back up under President Reagan.
  • Social: civil society reemerges in Eastern Europe.

Reform Begins

  • 1978: China begins “reform and opening” under Deng Xiaoping.
    • Economic (not political) reforms
  • 1985: Mikhail Gorbachev takes power; seeks moderate reform.
    • Glasnost: free media and reduced censorship, making management and administration open to public debate.
    • Perestroika: introduction of some market reforms in agriculture and industry; preserves central planning
    • Struggled because of bureaucratic inflexibility
    • International reforms: loosens military control over Eastern Europe

USSR vs. China

  • USSR and Eastern Europe
    • Attempts at economic reforms fail
    • Communist party government overthrown
  • China
    • Economic reforms proceed (liberalization successfully pursued)
    • Communist party government maintained

Why Reform Failed in Eastern Europe and USSR

  • Modernization created well-educated, professional class.
    • Noscent civil society emerges
  • This civil society frustrated with centrally planned economy.
    • Triggers a crisis of legitimacy.
    • Chernobyl disaster worsens the legitimacy crisis.
  • Nationalism reasserts itself.
    • Eastern Europe seeks a “return to Europe.”
    • Pro-independence movements in USSR seeks national self-determination.

How Did China Avoid the Fall?

  • Economy: primarily agricultural
    • Weaker civil society
  • Economy was improving
    • Bolsters government legitimacy
  • International and identity motivators much weaker

Postcommunist Geography Changes

  • The USSR becomes 15 new countries.
  • East and West Germany reunite.
  • Czechoslovakia splits.
  • Yugoslavia fragments.

Czechoslovakia’s Split

  • Peaceful split
  • (Velvet divorce)

Yugoslavia’s Split

  • Several conflicts
  • Border disputes to this day

The Transformation of Political Institutions

Reorganizing the State and Building Democracy: The Challenges

  • Establishing a rule of law
  • Creating democratic “building blocks”
    • For example, political parties
  • Writing new constitutions
    • Separation of powers
    • Executive and legislative design
    • Electoral laws
    • Civil rights and civil liberties

Common Features of Democratic Transition “Successes”

  • More frequently located in Central Europe and Baltic.
  • More favorable precommunist legacy
    • Greater economic development
    • Vibrant civil society
    • History of democratic institutions
    • Experience with rule of law
  • Stronger ties to Europe and the European Union

Political Transitions: Successes and Failures

  • Top 10 Most Democratic
    • Czech Republic
    • Estonia
    • Lithuania
    • Slovenia
    • Bulgaria
    • Latvia
    • Poland
    • Romania
  • Top 10 Least Democratic
    • Uzbekistan
    • Turkmenistan
    • Tajikistan
    • Russia
    • Belarus
    • Azerbaijan
    • Kazakhstan
    • Kyrgyzstan
    • Bosnia-Herzegovina
    • Armenia

The Transformations of Economic Institutions

Economic Transitions: The Challenges

In Focus: Reestablishing Separation of State and Economy

  • Privatization: the transfer of state-held property into private hands.
  • Marketization: the re-creation of the market forces of supply and demand.

Paths to Privatization and Marketization

  • Different paths to privatization
    • Option 1: small businesses sold to employees; large businesses to private investors
    • Option 2: distributed shared to firms to public as a whole
  • Different speeds toward marketization
    • Option 1: gradualism; slow easing of price restrictions while maintaining some social safety
    • Option 2: shock therapy; process of rapid marketization

Authoritarianism in Russia: Why?

  • 1990s: “Shock therapy” for economy: Markets quickly established, and rapid privatization of state-run industries
  • Led to economic and political instability
  • State-run industries sold to ruling class cronies (oligarchs)
  • Sets the stage for the rise of Putin

The Unique Case of China

  • China is still controlled by the Communist Party but should be considered a “postcommunist” economic system.
    • Pursued economic reforms to privatize business and agriculture.
  • China’s reforms have fueled phenomenal growth and raised the legitimacy of the Communist Party government.
  • However, there are some problems with the China model:
    • Inflation, corruption, unemployment, and growing inequality
    • Weak rule of law compounds these problems.
    • The China “miracle” covers up serious environmental damage.
  • Upside of the Chinese model
    • Massive economic growth, millions lifted out of poverty
  • Downside of the Chinese model
    • Massive repression and surveillance

Economic Transitions

  • Different growth rate
  • Differences in (in)equality and poverty
    • Most have seen increases in inequality, poverty, and unemployment.
  • Economic frustrations fueling nostalgia on those left behind.

The Transformations of Societal Institutions

Challenging Identities: The Challenges

  • Reemerging identities
    • Religion
    • Ethnicity/nationalism
  • More complicated relations
    • Gender relations and women’s equality
    • Gender identity and sexual orientation

Comparing Social Transitions: Gender Equality

  • A legacy of gender equality (when compared to similar states)
  • Trend toward more divergence

Comparing Social Transitions: LGBTQ Rights

  • Differences in government policies
    • Improvements in Central European states
    • Outright discrimination increasing in Russia and Central Asia
  • Overall, homophobia in public is declining.

In Sum: The Legacy of Communism

  • Marx saw history as a class struggle, with revolutions triggered by changes in technology.
  • Communist systems sought to completely transform politics, economics, and society, but often fell short of their goals.
  • By the late 1980s and early 1990s, most communist states collapsed or transitioned to new forms of government.
  • Regarding political transitions, some communist countries transitioned to liberal democracy while others remain hybrid regimes or nondemocratic.
  • Regarding economic transitions, communist countries took many paths and had varying degrees of economic success.
  • Regarding social transitions, the postcommunist world varies significantly with regard to the expression to the expression of ethnic and national identity, gender rights, and LGBTQ rights.

Key Terms

  1. Base - the economic system of a society, made up of technology (the means of production) and class relations between people (the relations of production)
  2. Bourgeoisie - the property-owning class
  3. Central Committee - the legislature-like body of a communist party
  4. Central planning - a communist economic system in which the state explicitly allocates resources by planning what should be produced and in what amounts, the final price of goods, and where they should be sold
  5. Communism - (1) a political-economic system in which all wealth and property are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, and, ultimately, the need for political institutions such as the state; (2) a political ideology that advocates such a system
  6. Dialectical materialism - process of historical change that is not evolutionary but revolutionary; the existing base and superstructure (thesis) would come into conflict with new technological innovations, generating growing opposition to the existing order (antithesis)--this would culminate in revolution, overthrowing the old base and superstructure (synthesis)
  7. Glasnost - literally, openness; the policy of political liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s
  8. Nomenklatura - politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or economy that were staffed by people chosen or approved by the Communist Party
  9. Party state - a political system in which power flows directly from the ruling political party (usually a communist party) to the state, bypassing government structures
    1. Perestroika - literally, restructuring; the policy of political and economic liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the 1980s
    2. Politburo - the top policy-making executive body of a communist party
    3. Proletariat - the working class
    4. Shock therapy - a process of rapid marketization
    5. Superstructure - all noneconomic institutions in a society (e.g., religion, culture, national identity); these ideas and values derive from the base and serve to legitimize the current system of exploitation
    6. Vanguard of the proletariat - Lenin’s argument that an elite communist party would have to carry out revolution, because as a result of false consciousness, historical conditions would not automatically lead to capitalism’s demise
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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
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Unit 6: Developmental Psychology
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