Relationships, Attraction, and Stereotyping in Social Psychology

What did Harry Harlow's surrogate mother studies demonstrate about infant attachment?

Monkeys preferred the cloth mother for warmth and comfort over the wire mother that provided food, indicating the importance of emotional support.

What are the negative consequences of lacking social connections?

Higher mortality rates, increased suicide and crime rates, and lower general well-being.

What distinguishes communal relationships from exchange relationships?

In communal relationships, individuals give/receive based on need, while in exchange relationships, interactions are based on fairness and reciprocity.

What does social exchange theory suggest about relationships?

People's feelings about a relationship are shaped by their evaluations of costs and rewards, as well as perceptions of alternatives.

What is the comparison level in social exchange theory?

The expectations people have about what they should get out of a relationship.

What is the comparison level for alternatives?

The outcomes people believe they can achieve in alternative relationships.

What does equity theory state about relationships?

People are motivated to pursue fairness, and a relationship is equitable when the ratio of rewards to costs is similar for both partners.

What is attachment theory?

It suggests that early relationships with caregivers influence interpersonal relationships throughout life, characterized by anxiety and avoidance dimensions.

What attachment style is characterized by distress in new environments and less comfort from caregivers?

Anxious attachment.

What is the significance of proximity in attraction?

Closeness of contact leads to attraction, with functional distance influencing social contact and liking.

What did the Philadelphia marriages study reveal about proximity?

Many couples lived close to each other, with a significant number residing within the same block or building.

What is the mere exposure effect?

The phenomenon where individuals develop more positive feelings towards stimuli they encounter frequently.

What does the Ideal Standards Model identify as important factors in attraction?

Warmth/loyalty, vitality/attractiveness, and status/resources.

How does similarity influence attraction?

People are drawn to others who share similarities in background, preferences, values, and beliefs, leading to consensual validation.

What is the status exchange hypothesis?

Romantic attraction increases when two people offer each other elevated status in areas where they are lacking.

What is the halo effect in the context of physical attractiveness?

Attractive individuals are perceived to possess additional positive qualities beyond their physical appearance.

Why are averaged faces considered more attractive?

They tend to be more symmetrical, have better complexions, and appear younger, enhancing perceived mate value.

What is reproductive fitness in mate selection?

The ability to pass on one's genes to future generations, influencing preferences for traits that enhance reproductive success.

What do evolutionary psychologists suggest about men's and women's preferences in partners?

Men prefer women who exhibit signs of fertility, while women seek partners who can provide for them and their offspring.

What role does parental investment play in mate selection?

Individuals prioritize characteristics that maximize reproductive success based on the investment they are willing to make in offspring.

What does Parental Investment Theory suggest about gender differences in mate preferences?

It suggests that gender differences evolved from underlying differences in parental investment, with females being more choosy due to higher investment in offspring.

How do males typically behave in mate selection according to Parental Investment Theory?

Males are less choosy and compete more for mates, preferring signs of fertility and health.

What evidence supports the predictions of Parental Investment Theory regarding mate preferences?

Data from personal ads and cross-cultural surveys show men seek youth/beauty while women seek resources.

What is the investment model of commitment in romantic relationships?

It highlights three factors that increase commitment: satisfaction, few alternative partners, and investments in the relationship.

What role does perceived partner responsiveness play in relationships?

It is associated with higher satisfaction, fewer alternatives, and greater investment in the relationship.

What are the different types of love mentioned in the context of romantic relationships?

Companionate love, compassionate love, and romantic love.

What factors contribute to relationship dissatisfaction and divorce?

Personality traits, socioeconomic status, marrying young, communication problems, and negative behavioral patterns.

What is the definition of stereotypes in the context of intergroup bias?

Stereotypes are generalizations about groups that are often applied to individual group members.

How is prejudice defined in relation to group membership?

Prejudice involves a positive or negative attitude and emotional response to members of a group.

What is the difference between discrimination and prejudice?

Discrimination is the favorable or unfavorable treatment of an individual based on group membership, while prejudice is the attitude behind that treatment.

What is modern racism and how does it manifest?

Modern racism involves holding conscious egalitarian attitudes while simultaneously exhibiting nonconscious negative attitudes and behaviors indicating prejudice.

What does the implicit association test (IAT) measure?

It measures nonconscious attitudes by comparing reaction times to positive and negative stimuli associated with outgroup members.

What is the economic perspective on stereotyping and discrimination?

It suggests that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination arise from competition for limited resources.

What does the realistic group conflict theory propose?

It proposes that prejudice and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources.

What did the Robbers Cave experiment demonstrate about intergroup conflict?

It showed that competition can lead to hostility, but cooperation towards shared goals can reduce that hostility.

What is the motivational perspective on intergroup relations?

It posits that poor intergroup relations arise simply from the existence of two groups and an 'us vs them' mentality.

What is the minimal group paradigm?

It is an experimental setup where individuals favor their own arbitrary group over others, demonstrating ingroup favoritism.

What does social identity theory explain regarding ingroup favoritism?

It explains that self-esteem is partly derived from group membership and success, leading to favoritism towards one's ingroup.

What are some characteristics of companionate love?

It is typically experienced with friends and family, characterized by trust, shared activities, and a desire to be around each other.

What is compassionate love?

It is a communal relationship characterized by bonds that focus on monitoring and responding to another person's needs.

What are some behaviors that strengthen healthy relationships?

Celebrating positive events, engaging in playful interactions, and appreciating each other's positive qualities.

How do arranged marriages differ from Western marriages in terms of perceived benefits?

Arranged marriages may offer benefits not always recognized in Western societies, such as family support and stability.

What is the significance of kindness and intelligence in romantic relationships?

Both men and women value kindness and intelligence more than physical attractiveness or earning potential.

How do gender equality levels affect women's preferences for wealth?

Women show less preference for wealth in cultures with greater gender equality, arguing against the universality of gender differences in mate selection.

What is ingroup favoritism?

The tendency to have a positive identity based on one's group, leading to pride in the accomplishments of group members.

What cognitive perspective focuses on stereotypes?

The cognitive perspective emphasizes that stereotypes are a form of categorization and are often used when individuals are tired or overburdened.

What are stereotypes?

Shared beliefs about social groups based on their social category, which can be positive or negative and may exaggerate similarities within groups and differences between groups.

What is the difference between statistical and generic stereotypes?

Statistical stereotypes are based on averages (e.g., men are taller than women), while generic stereotypes make broad assumptions about all members of a group (e.g., all men are tall).

What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?

The tendency to perceive outgroup members as more similar to each other than ingroup members, leading to the belief that 'they're all the same, we're unique.'

What is the own-race identification bias?

The tendency for individuals to recognize faces from their own race better than those from other races.

What is the contact hypothesis?

The theory that contact between members of different groups can reduce intergroup hostility, especially under certain conditions such as equal status and cooperative goals.

What is social dominance theory?

A theory explaining how hierarchical societies maintain inequality through individual and institutional discrimination.

What is social dominance orientation?

A personality trait that reflects an individual's support for socioeconomic hierarchy and belief in the superiority of certain groups.

What is the just world hypothesis?

The belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get.

What is dehumanization?

The conviction that individuals lack complex emotions and the capacity for agency characteristic of humanity.

What does the Stereotype Content Model describe?

It describes how stereotypes vary along the dimensions of warmth and competence, leading to different societal perceptions of groups.

What is attributional ambiguity?

The uncertainty that members of stigmatized groups feel about whether others' behaviors towards them are due to prejudice or unrelated factors.

What is stereotype threat?

The fear that members of stigmatized groups will confirm others' stereotypes, which can impair their performance.

What are systemic inequities?

Historical and contemporary laws, policies, and practices that advantage some groups while disadvantaging others in areas like wealth, education, and healthcare.

What is subtyping?

The process of creating a separate category for individuals who do not fit a stereotype, rather than adjusting the stereotype itself.

What is the role of automatic processes in prejudice?

People may respond reflexively to outgroup members, revealing prejudice without awareness, though these reactions can be corrected by conscious thought.

What is the Marley hypothesis?

The claim that different racial groups assess the amount of racism in society differently based on their knowledge of racial history.

What are individual approaches to reducing prejudice?

Strategies include teaching unprejudiced attitudes, using social media to discourage prejudice, and cognitive/emotional training interventions.

What is the effectiveness of diversity training?

Diversity training has limited effectiveness, suggesting the need for incorporating elements from other approaches to reduce prejudice.

What is the impact of stereotypes and prejudices on marginalized groups?

They face discrimination in hiring, promotion, and justice systems, and may suffer from attributional ambiguity and stereotype threat.

How do stereotypes affect social interactions?

Stereotypes can create misunderstandings, as individuals may try to counteract perceived stereotypes, leading to awkward or disrupted interactions.

What is the relationship between stereotypes and social safety nets?

In societies with widespread stereotypes, there is often less support for social safety nets, contributing to greater inequality.

What is the significance of cognitive shortcuts in social categorization?

Cognitive shortcuts simplify social judgments and conserve mental resources, but can lead to biased perceptions and judgments.

What is the role of ideologies in maintaining social hierarchies?

Ideologies justify inequality, such as beliefs in meritocracy and the just world hypothesis, which help maintain hierarchical structures.