Kin 170 midterm

Homeostasis & control, cells, tissues & integumentary, skeletal system, articulations, nervous system

What does anatomy mean?

the science dealing with the structure of living organisms

What does physiology mean?

the branch of science dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts

How anatomy organized?

chemical level→ cellular level→ tissue level → organ level → organ system level → organism level

What is the body’s control system?

There are various stressors (heat, cold, etc.) and its job is to respond to attempt to maintain a constant internal environment.

What is an example of a non-biological control system?

A furnace

What detects a change in the parameter?

Receptor

What assesses strength of a stressor and sends an appropriate output response to the effector?

Integration centre

What attempts to correct the disturbance to the internal environment?

Effector

What is negative feedback?

Trying to bring the body back to normal state. Tries to re-establish equilibrium in response.

What are examples of negative feedback?

When you are too hot your body starts sweating to cool you off

What is positive feedback?

Amplifies the reaction and keeps it up until a big event

What are examples of positive feedback

childbirth contractions

Biological Control systems examples

Arterial blood pressure, endocrine system

Homeostasis

The maintenance of an internal environment at or near normal resting levels

Steady State

an adapted level by change of intensity. It plateaus over time of the change

What is the study of cells?

Cytology

What is the cell theory?

cells are living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane. They are the structural building blocks of all plants and animals.

Which two categories do cells fall into?

Sex cells and Somatic cells

What are cells functions?

covering & lining, communication, reproduction, movement ,connection, defense, storage

What are the three regions of the cell?

1. cell membrane 2. cytoplasm 3. nucleus

Cell Membrane description

• Extremely thin boarder of each cell.

• It is selective both physical & chemical barrier

• it is the “gatekeeper”

• phospholipid bilayer

Passive Transport definition

The movement of substance across a cell membrane without the requiring energy → down the concentration gradient

What are the 3 types of passive transport?

Diffusion, facilitated diffusion & osmosis

Diffusion

Small, non-polar substances (oxygen, CO2) pass through the cell membrane down their concentration gradient

Facilitated Diffusion

Substances cross with the help of channel proteins (less selective) or carrier proteins (more selective)

Osmosis

diffusion of water to equalize its own concentration. Occurs when membrane is permeable to water not to solutes.

Active Transport

Movement of substances across the membrane that requires energy in the form of ATP

What are the 3 types of active transport?

Sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis & exocytosis

Sodium-potassium pump

transport 3 sodiums out and 2 potassium ions into the cell

Endocytosis

form of active transport in which a cell envelopes extracellular material using its cell membrane. Phagocytosis “cell eating”: engulfs large solid particles (worn out cells, bacteria or viruses) and lysosomal deal with them. Pinocytosis “cell drinking”: grabs tiny droplets of extracellular fluids are taken in.

Exocytosis

This is where material is released from the cell. Endocytosis in reversed

Cytoplasm

Nonspecific term for all materials between plasma membrane and nucleus

What 3 things make up the cytoplasm?

cytosol, cytoskeleton & organelles

Cytosol

It is intracellular fluid. It is 75-90% water plus dissolved and suspended components (ions, proteins, carbohydrates, amino acids)

Cytoskeleton

a network of protein filaments throughout cytosol

Microtubules

Thicker, maintain cell shape, resist compression, made up cilia and flagella

Microfilaments

Thinner, primary component in actin

Actin

a protein that forms chains

Intermediate filaments

Middle thickness, made up of protein keratin and resists tension

Organelles

specialized structures within the cell that perform specific functions. Some examples: Endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, mitochondria

Nucleus

Control centre of the cell and contains genetic material that determines the structure and function of the cell

Tissues

group of cells that function together to carry out specialized activities

What are the 4 main groups of tissues?

Connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissues

Epithelial Type

Covering & lining, Glandular

The function of covering and lining epithelial tissue

protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion and sensory reception

The function of glandular epithelial tissue

Secretion and they found in glands

Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

Polarity→ apical surface and basal surface

supported by connective tissue

Avascular and innervated

Regeneration

Number of layers:

Simple=1 layer Stratified= more than 1 layer

Cell shape

squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudostratified and transitional

Used for filtration and diffusion and located in our cardiovascular system, capillaries and alveoli in lungs

Simple Squamous

Its function is for secretion and absorption and is located in small ducts and glands

Simple Cuboidal

Its function is secretion, absorption, lubrication (cells secrete), movement (cilia). It is located in the digestive tract from stomach to rectum

Simple columnar

Single layer of cells of different heights but rest on basement membrane and can be ciliated. Its function is secretion and absorption and is located in the upper respiratory system (ciliated)

Pseudostratified

Its function is for protections (keratinized or not) and it is located on the external part of skin, mouth or esophagus

Stratified Squamous

On the basal layer it is cuboidal or columnar and on the apical layer more domelike or squamous-like. Its function is stretches and located in the urinary system

Transitional epithelium

what are the 4 primary classes of connective tissue?

Connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood

What are the functions of connective tissue?

Binding & support, protection, insulation, transportation

Characteristics of connective tissue

Come from mesenchyme, ranges from non-vascularized to highly vascularized, has extracellular matrix.

What is ground substance?

fills space between cells, it is fluid, semifluid, gelatinous or calcified, contains water & organic molecules and acts as a molecular sieve

What are the 3 types of fibers?

collagen, elastic and reticular

Connective Tissue proper cells:

Fibroblast & Fibrocyte

Cartilage cells

Chondroblast & chondrocyte

Bone cells

Osteoblast & Osteocyte

What two sub-categories is in connective tissue proper?

Loose connective tissue (areolar, adipose, reticular) and Dense connective tissue (dense regular, dense irregular, elastic)

What has Gel-like matrix 3 fiber types, function is to wrap and cushion organs and is found in lamina, packages organs and surrounding capillaries?

Areolar connective tissue

What has very sparse matrix and has closely packed adipocytes (fat cells), its function is to hold energy, insulate and protects organs and is located under skin, around kidneys, eyeballs and breasts.

Adipose connective tissue

What has a network of reticular fibers in a loose ground substance and its function is to form a soft internal skeleton, it is located in the lymphoid organs?

Reticular connective tissue

What has primarily parallel collagen fibers, a few elastin fibers, its function is to attach muscles to bon or to muscles and is located in tendon, ligaments and aponeuroses?

Dense regular connective tissue

What is primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers, some elastic fibers its function is to withstand tension exerted in many directions and is located in the dermis, joints?

Dense irregular connective tissue

What has denes regular connection tissue containing a high amount of elastic fibers, its function allows recoil and stretching and is located in walls of large arteries, certain ligaments with the vertebral column?

Elastic connective tissue

What are the 3 types of cartilage?

Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage

What has a firm matrix, function to support, reinforce, cushions, resists compression and is located at the ends of long bones, costal cartilage and nose?

Hyaline Cartilage

What has a slightly less firm matrix, its functions are to withstand tension, absorb shock and is located in the intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis and menisci?

Fibrocartilage

What has a similar matrix to hyaline, function is to maintain shape but flexible and is located in the external ear?

Elastic cartilage

What are the 2 types of bone?

Spongy and compact

What are the 3 layers of skin?

Epidermis, dermis and hypodermis

What are the main functions of skin?

Thermoregulation, blood reservoir, protection, cutaneous sensations, excretion and absorption and synthesis of vitamin D

Which layer is composed of epithelial tissue and has keratinocytes, melanocytes, intraepidermal macrophages and Tactile epithelial cells?

Epidermis

What are the 5 layers of the epidermis?

Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum and stratum basal

Which layer is composed of Dense irregular tissue and has fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white blood cells and contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles and glands?

Dermis

Which 2 regions is in the dermis?

Papillary region and reticular region

Which layer isn’t part of skin, composed of areolar to adipose tissue, contains Pacinian corpuscles and stores fat, blood vessels that supply and drain capillaries of the skin?

Hypodermis

What are the 3 parts of hair?

Shaft, root and follicle

What are the 2 types of glands?

Sebaceous and sweat glands

What are the functions of bone?

Support, protection, assistance in movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation and triglyceride storage

What is gross anatomy of a long bone?

Periosteum, medullary cavity, the endosteum, epiphysis, diaphysis, metaphysis and articular cartilage

What bone tissue makes up approx. 80% and is the dense outer layer?

Compact bone

What bone tissue makes up approx. 20% and it is the honeycomb of trabeculae filled with bone marrow?

Spongy Bone

What makes up compact bone?

osteon, lamellae, interstitial lamellae, circumferential lamellae, central canal, perforating canal

What makes up spongy bone?

Trabeculae, red & yellow bone marrow

What are the 4 arteries that supply the bones?

Periosteal, nutrient, metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries

Which 4 veins are in the bones?

Periosteal, nutrient, metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries

Steps of Intramembranous Ossification

1. development of the ossification center where osteoblasts secrete organic extracellular matrix

2. Calcification occurs making osteoblasts into osteocytes, osteocytes in lacunae extend processes into canaliculi and calcium & mineral salts are deposited and the extracellular matrix calcifies

3. Formation of trabeculae happens when the extracellular matrix develops into trabeculae that fuse to form spongy bone

4. Periosteum, develops when the mesenchyme condenses into periosteum and replaces the spongy bone

Steps of Endochondral Ossification

1. development of cartilage model by having the mesenchymal cells develop chondroblasts

2. Growth of the cartilage model through cell division of chondrocytes

3. Primary ossification centre happens in the diaphysis and has bone tissue replace most of the cartilage

4. Development of the medullary cavity by osteoclasts breaking down bone

5. A secondary ossification centre forms in the epiphysis of the bone and spongy bone replaces cartilage

6. Articular cartilage & epiphyseal plate form a structure that consists of hyaline cartilage

Interstitial growth steps

1. resting cartilage zone→ chondrocytes anchor epiphyseal plate to epiphysis of the bone

2. Proliferating zone→ chondrocytes divide and secrete extracellular matrix, pushing the epiphysis away from the diaphysis

3. Hypertrophic zone→ cartilage cells are pushed further from epiphysis they hypertrophy and die

4. Calcified/ossification zone→ bone forms in place of cartilage and the osteoclasts dissolve calcified cartilage and secrete bone matrix and then becomes the diaphysis

Appositional growth steps

1. Osteoblasts secrete bone matrix and ridges form around periosteal blood vessels

2. Ridges fuse together forming an endosteum-lined tunnel for a blood vessel

3. Concentric lamellae form by osteoblasts secreting matrix

4. Circumferential lamellae occurs when osteoblasts deep to periosteum secrete matrix. Steps 1-3 continue

How are bones remodeled?

By two processes: bone resorption and bone deposit

Bone resorption steps

1. the ruffles boarder of osteoclasts creates a seal on endosteal and periosteal surface

2. releases lysosomal enzymes to digest fibers, acid dissolves calcium salts into soluble forms

3. dissolved matrix transported via transcytosis across osteoclast

4. Substances diffuse from interstitial fluid into blood capillaries

5. Osteoclasts leave and osteoblasts enter

Bone deposit

1. osteoblasts move in to repair resorbed area

2. new matrix is secreted by osteoblasts and matures for approx. 1 week before it calcifies

What are the factors that affect bone tissue?

Vitamins, minerals & hormones