Psychology Sociocultural Approach

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Social identity theory;

Social Identity Theory argues that a person does not have just one "personal self", but rather several social selves that correspond to group memberships.

There are three psychological mechanisms involved in the creation of a social identity: Social categorization, social comparison, and the tendency for people to use group membership as a source of self-esteem.

Social Categorization:

Social identity theory is based on the cognitive process of social categorization. Social categorization is the process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics (eg. nationality, age, occupation, etc..) .

This categorization gives rise to in-groups (us) and out-groups (them). Tajfel argues that even when people are randomly assigned to a group, they automatically think of that group as their in-group and all others as an out-group.

When we join a group, we go through a process of social identification. This is when we conform to the norms of that group and adopt their behaviors

Social Comparison:

Once we categorize people into "us" and "them", self-esteem is maintained by social comparison — that is, the benefits of belonging to the in-group versus the out-group.

Positive distinctiveness has to do with one group trying to make themselves better (positive) and different (distinct) from out-groups.

The self-esteem hypothesis posits that individual behaviour will be motivated by a desire to increase our self-esteem. This desire can influence group dynamics and intergroup interactions.

By viewing other groups negatively and adopting prejudicial thoughts about them, we might boost our self-esteem because it makes our own group feel superior

Social Groups part 1

Social group is a group of individuals that share something in common and identify as being part of that group.

Tajfel and Turner's social identity theory (SIT) claims that belonging to a social group and identifying with that group can influence our behaviour. This theory was developed as a result of the Holocaust in WWII, and the theory attempts to explain prejudice, discrimination, and in-group bias.

Social groups part 2 (accroding to…)

According to the theory, people can be categorized based on their belonging to “ingroups” or “outgroups.” By belonging to these groups and identifying with them, our behaviour can change. 

For example, people tend to favour their in-group over the out-group (in-group bias). This can lead to discrimination against the out-group in favour of in-group members. It can also lead to prejudice because we might make judgments about people based on their membership in different social groups. 

One reason for this behaviour is the self-esteem hypothesis. SIT posits that we favour our ingroup and discriminate against out-groups in order to boost our self-esteem because we want to belong to superior groups.

Social Cognitive Theory:

Bandura believed that there are more ways of learning other than through reward and punishment

Social Cognitive Learning Theory - formerly known as Social Learning Theory - assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning—in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior.

Three key concepts/elements: observational learning, self-efficacy, and (triadic reciprocal determinism)

Self-efficacy (Social Cognitive Theory - 2nd part)

Self-efficacy is one's belief in one's ability to successfully accomplish a task. Bandura and other researchers have found that individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to believe they can master challenging problems and they can recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments. Therefore, self-efficacy plays a central role in whether a learner will imitate the behavior of a model. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt to imitate the behavior of the model.

In other words, it is the confidence in one's ability to do something.

Observational Learning (Social Cognitive Theory - 3rd part)

Learning by observing others or being influenced by them in other ways because you don't need direct experience to learn, you can just learn through modelling.

Modelling (Social Cognitive Theory - 4th part)

The process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour.

Observational Learning (Social Cognitive Theory - 5th part)

Bandura claims there are certain processes that will increase the likelihood that modeling will lead to a learned behaviour by the observer of the model:

- Attention

- Retention

- Motivation

- Potential

Attention

In order to learn a behavior, the learner must pay attention to the model. There are certain factors that may influence whether attention is paid to the model, including the attractiveness of the model, the authority of the model, or the desirability of the behavior.

Retention:

The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed in order to produce that behavior immediately or after some time.

Motivation:

Learners must want to replicate the behavior that they have observed. In order to do this, they must understand what the potential outcome is if they repeat the behavior - what Bandura called outcome expectancies.

Potential:

In order to reproduce an observed behavior, observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behavior - that is, there needs to be a certain level of self-efficacy.

Stereotypes (effect / formation they have on behavior)

A stereotype is a generalization about a group. When we perceive and compare our own in-group with an out-group, we are not thinking about the individual members of the group. Instead, we are making broad generalizations about all members of the group. Stereotyping, therefore, is a cognitive process whereby people categorize themselves and others based on membership in a group. In this way, a stereotype is an example of a social schema or a simplified mental representation of a group of people. Once a set of characteristic is used to describe a group of people, we apply the characteristics associated with that schema to a single member of the group.

One effect of stereotypes is

As introduced above, one effect of stereotypes is called stereotype threat. Stereotypes can have a negative effect on members of the group to which the stereotype is applied even if the members of the group do not believe the stereotype. Stereotype threat is a theory which states that when a person is made aware of a stereotype about his or her group, it can have a negative effect on their performance. This may be because becoming aware of the stereotype increases "spotlight anxiety" or the feeling that you are being judged which in turn harms performance.

Formation of stereotypes

The formation of stereotypes can be explained with the out-homogeneity effect, which refers to an in-group's member perception of the out-group. Those in the in-group begin to see members of the out-group as all being more alike than members of their in-group. By simply viewing all members of the group as being more similar than an in-group, a stereotype, as a social schema, could be formed.

Culture and its influence on behavior

Culture is made up of a set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group of people, and usually communicated from one generation to the next.

Cultural groups can be identified by their distinct cultural norms, which are shared expectations of appropriate ways of thinking and behaving. Therefore, belonging to a cultural group can influence our behavior because we follow these norms.

Cultures vary in the behaviors and values they promote

An example of a cultural group can be a collectivist or individualistic culture.

In individualistic cultures, identity comes from individuality, where they emphasize personal objectives, personal accomplishments, and freedom. Here, there are loose ties between individuals; you look after yourself and immediate family only.

Whereas in collectivism, identity is defined by relationship with others and belonging to groups (family and social). They prioritize group aims, harmony in the group, and strong in-group bonds are formed. These people view themselves as a bigger social group, since an extended family is important to them.