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Glucagon
A hormone that increases blood glucose levels by mobilizing and liberating fuel stores.
Insulin
A hormone that decreases blood glucose levels by storing and conserving energy fuels.
Plasma Levels
The concentration of a substance in the liquid component of blood.
Basal
Referring to the body's baseline or resting state.
Diabetes
A chronic condition characterized by elevated blood glucose levels.
Type I Diabetes symptoms
Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) that typically presents itself at a younger age and requires insulin injections for treatment.
Type II Diabetes symptoms
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) that typically presents itself in individuals over the age of 30 and can be managed through nutritional intervention and weight reduction.
Anoxic Episodes in Muscle
Episodes of low oxygen levels in muscle tissue.
Energy Flux
The flow and exchange of energy within the body.
C-peptide
A peptide that is removed during the synthesis of insulin and can be used as an indicator of pancreatic function.
Cyclic AMP
A molecule that increases in concentration in response to glucagon and activates various protein kinases.
Tyrosine Kinase
An enzyme that phosphorylates tyrosine residues in proteins.
PI3-kinase
A signaling pathway activated by insulin that plays a role in glucose transport and gene transcription.
Ras Signaling Pathway
A signaling pathway activated by insulin that regulates cell growth and differentiation.
GLUT-4
A glucose transporter protein that is translocated to the plasma membrane in response to insulin.
Glucagon Receptor
A membrane-bound protein that binds to glucagon hormone and activates signaling pathways.
Adenylate Cyclase
An enzyme that synthesizes cyclic AMP in response to activation by G protein.
Glucose Tolerance Test
A test used to diagnose diabetes by measuring how the body responds to a glucose load.
Type 1 diabetes
A form of diabetes characterized by the absence of insulin and destruction of pancreatic β-cells by white blood cells.
Insulin
A hormone produced by the pancreas that allows glucose to enter cells and regulates blood glucose levels.
Type 2 diabetes
A form of diabetes characterized by insulin resistance and impaired glucose metabolism.
Insulin resistance
A condition where muscle and adipose tissues are non-responsive to insulin.
Glycemic Index
A ranking system that measures how much a carbohydrate-containing food raises blood sugar levels.
Low GI
Carbohydrates with a glycemic index below 55.
Medium GI
Carbohydrates with a glycemic index between 56-69.
High GI
Carbohydrates with a glycemic index above 70.
Energy Metabolism
The process by which the body converts food into energy for various organs.
Brain
The organ that primarily uses glucose as its main fuel source.
Liver
The organ that primarily uses fatty acids as its main fuel source and synthesizes and releases glucose for other organs.
Exercising Muscle
Muscle that undergoes complete oxidation of both glucose and fatty acids for energy.
Muscles during Anoxic Episodes
Muscles that produce lactic acid from glucose when there is not enough oxygen.
Enzyme
A protein that catalyzes biochemical reactions in the body.
Glycogen phosphorylase
An enzyme that converts glycogen into glucose.
Glycogen synthase
An enzyme that converts glucose into glycogen.
Glycogen
Storage form of carbohydrates in the liver and muscle.
Glycogen synthase
Enzyme responsible for synthesizing glycogen.
Glycogen phosphorylase
Enzyme responsible for breaking down glycogen.
UDP-glucose
A molecule used in the synthesis of glycogen.
Glucose-1-phosphate
A molecule produced during glycogen breakdown.
Glucagon
Hormone that decreases glycogen synthase activity and increases glycogen phosphorylase activity.
cAMP
A secondary messenger that mediates the effects of glucagon.
G6P
Glucose-6-phosphate, a molecule involved in glucose metabolism.
Glucose-6-phosphatase
Enzyme responsible for converting G6P to free glucose in the liver.
Epinephrine
Hormone released during exercise that activates adenylate cyclase.
Glycolysis
Metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate.
Gluconeogenesis
Metabolic pathway that synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
Hexokinase
Enzyme that converts glucose to G6P.
Krebs Cycle
Also known as the citric acid cycle, a series of reactions that generates energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
An intermediate molecule in fructose and glycerol metabolism.
PEPCK
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, an enzyme involved in gluconeogenesis.
Pyruvate kinase
Enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate.
Phosphofructokinase-1
Enzyme that regulates the rate of glycolysis.
β-oxidation
Metabolic pathway that breaks down fatty acids to produce acetyl-CoA.
TAGs
Triacylglycerols, a form of stored fat.
VLDLs
Very low-density lipoproteins, particles that transport lipids in the bloodstream.
AV Difference
Arteriovenous difference, the difference in concentration of a metabolite between arterial and venous blood.
Clearance Rate
The rate at which a metabolite is taken up by an organ.
Creatine phosphate
A molecule used for short bursts of energy.
Respiratory quotient
A measure of the ratio of carbon dioxide produced to oxygen consumed during metabolism.
Fuel Rate of Use
The rate at which fuel is utilized during different levels of exercise.
Glucose
A type of sugar that is reserved for the brain and is an important energy source during exercise.
FFAs
Free fatty acids that are supplied by adipose tissue and serve as a fuel source during mild exercise.
Creatine Phosphate
A molecule that serves as an "energy buffer" in muscle and helps maintain a constant ATP level during sudden bursts of exercise.
Glycogen
A form of stored glucose in the muscles and liver that is used as a fuel source during exercise.
Carbohydrate Loading
A strategy of consuming carbohydrates after exercise to replenish muscle glycogen stores.
Gluconeogenesis
The process of synthesizing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, such as lactate, glycerol, and amino acids.
Alanine
An amino acid that is released from muscle during exercise and contributes to gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Glucose Transporters
Proteins that increase in number during exercise to facilitate the uptake of glucose into muscle cells.
Fructose
A type of sugar that is converted to glucose in the liver and can contribute to glycogen synthesis.
Hydrolysis
The process of breaking down TAGs into fatty acids and glycerol.
Hormone-sensitive lipase
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of TAGs into fatty acids and glycerol.
FFAs
Free fatty acids, which are released during the hydrolysis of TAGs.
Glycerol
A component of TAGs that can be released during hydrolysis and used for gluconeogenesis.
Glucagon
A hormone that increases the rate of cAMP in cells, leading to increased mobilization of fuel cells.
Epinephrine
A hormone that increases the rate of cAMP in cells, leading to increased mobilization of fuel cells. It increases only during exercise.
cAMP
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a signaling molecule that increases the mobilization of fuel cells.
Glycerol Metabolism
The process of utilizing glycerol released during TAG hydrolysis.
Glycerol kinase
An enzyme that converts glycerol to glycerol phosphate.
Glycerol phosphate
A molecule that is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate during glycerol metabolism.
Fatty Acid Transport
The process of transporting free fatty acids in the bloodstream.
Albumin
A protein used in the transport of FFAs in the bloodstream.
Membrane-bound proteins
Proteins that mediate the transfer of FFAs across cell membranes.
Fatty acyl-CoA
A form of fatty acids that are converted within cells.
Carnitine
A molecule required for the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria.
Krebs Cycle
A metabolic pathway that generates energy from the breakdown of acetyl-CoA.
Medium-chain fatty acids
Fatty acids that are more soluble in water and tend to be metabolized immediately in the mitochondria.
Long-chain fatty acids
Fatty acids that are less soluble in water and are stored as fat.
Anaerobic vs Aerobic Energy Metabolism
The comparison between energy metabolism that occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) and energy metabolism that occurs in the presence of oxygen (aerobic).
Lactate Dehydrogenase
An enzyme that converts pyruvate to lactate during anaerobic glycolysis.
Ketogenesis
The process by which ketone bodies, such as β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, and acetone, are produced from fatty acids.
Fasting
A period of time during which an individual abstains from consuming food.
Severe Malnutrition
A condition characterized by a severe lack of energy and protein, resulting in overall wasting of the body.
Malnutrition Types
The two types of severe malnutrition:Marasmus, which is an overall lack of energy and protein, and Kwashiorkor, which is chronic consumption of a carbohydrate-rich diet with little or no protein.
Protein Turnover
The process of degrading or hydrolyzing proteins in the body.
Fatty Liver
A condition characterized by the accumulation of fat in the liver.
Alcohol Metabolism
The process by which the body breaks down and metabolizes alcohol.
Alcohol Dehydrogenase
An enzyme involved in the metabolism of alcohol.
Ketone Bodies
β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, and acetone, which are produced during ketogenesis and serve as alternative energy sources for the brain during fasting.
Ketosis
Elevated levels of ketone bodies in the bloodstream, often caused by fasting, exercise, or a high-fat diet.
Ketoacidosis
A condition characterized by overproduction and underutilization of ketone bodies, leading to acidosis and potentially fatal symptoms.
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