SOC 100 (Exam 1)

Social construction

idea/practice that a group of people agree exists; maintained by people taking its existence granted

ex: College life

Sociology

study of social life, change, causes, consequences of human behavior; investigation of group structures, organizations, societies, and human interaction within these contexts

Sociological eye

observation of social patterns, relationships, and structures around you; enabling you to understand society on a deeper level

Sociological imagination

understanding the connection between individual experiences and larger social, historical, structural forces

Social activism

collective effort to promote, guide, impede change (social, political, economical, environmental)

Fallacy of individualism

attributing human behavior/outcomes to individual traits, choices, actions

ex: Why did some students struggle during the pandemic?

• Individualist: lack of motivation, poor time management, insufficient tech skills

• Sociological: access to tech, support family, appropriate learning environmental

Theory

systematic framework that explains how and why certain phenomena occurs

Rational choice theory

individuals pursue self-interest

• individuals act on rational evaluation costs/benefits

• individuals seek to maximize personal advantage/utility

• social structures emerge from combination of individual choices

• critiques: overemphasizes rationality, assumes equal agency

Functionalism

interrelated parts, each serving necessary functions

• social order + stability are desired, maintained through norms/values

• change is gradual and often disruptive to the system

• critiques: can’t explain social change nor account for dysfunctions in the system

Conflict theory

order is maintained by domination

• the most powerful possess greatest resources/means of production

• power and inequality are central to understanding social structures

• social change = dominant group vs. subordinate group

• critiques: overly focused on conflict, overly deterministic

Symbolic interactionism

microlevel interactions between individuals

• symbols and language are core to human interactions

• people actively shape their social environments

• critiques: neglects larger social structures, power dynamics, historical contexts

Levels of analysis

• Micro: day-to-day interactions

• Meso: intermediate sized groups (larger than local community, smaller than nation)

• Macro: entire nations, global forces, international trends

Nomothetic

study/discovery of general scientific laws

ex: gravity

Ideographic

study/discovery of particular scientific facts/processes

ex: case studies

Steps of research process

1. Define research problem

2. Review the literature

3. Make problem precise

4. Choose method

5. Carry out the research

6. Interpret results

7. Report the findings

Survey

ordered series of questions to gain information from respondents

Interview

one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject; participants not limited to predetermined choices

Focus group

group interview of people with similar traits/common experiences

Participant observation

observing people’s behavior in practice to uncover meanings behind social actions, qualitative

Ethnography

researcher immersed in natural setting of a social community to observe + experience their daily life/culture

Experiment

analyzing variables in a controlled, systematic way; either in an artificial situation or naturally occurring setting

• hypothesis

• independent variable

• dependent variable

• controls (doesn’t apply for field experiments)

• random assignment

Tuskegee experiment

researchers observed low-income African Americans with syphilis but didn’t reveal purpose or offer treatment

Tearoom trade

researcher observed men who have sex with other men in public, obvious breach of privacy

Stanford prison experiment

male college students assigned role of guard or prisoner in prison simulation to observe the power of the situation

Respect for persons

ethical principle; individuals are autonomous and have free will, participation is voluntary and informed

Beneficence

ethical principle; maximize possible benefits without harming individuals

Justice

ethical principle; all individuals get same benefits/burdens from the research

Social media use

• Benefits: community, information, self-expression

• Harms: mental health, content, addiction

• Culture: standards, global, communication

Culture

shared beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, artifacts that shape a group’s way of life and are passed down through generations

learned, not innate

Values

ideas about what is desirable, proper, good/bad; strongly influenced by culture

Norms

roles of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given social situation; prescribes/forbids behavior

can conflict with other people’s or society/s norms

Culture shock

doubt, confusion, anxiety arising from immersion in an unfamiliar culture

Code-switching

switching fluidly between two or more languages/sets of cultural norms to fit different cultural contexts

Cultural appropriation

when people of one cultural group borrow elements of another cultural group

ex: white people wearing Native American headdresses

Cultural relativism

accounting for the differences across cultures without judgement

ex: exchange of ideas, beliefs, lifestyles

Media

any format, platform, vehicle that carries, presents, communicates information

can reflect cultural change and shape cultural values/norms

Social media

technology that lets users produce, share, consume media in a variety of formats

Social media and authoritarianism

• mis/disinformation and propaganda

• surveillance tool

• incites violence

• algorithms amplify extremism

Socialization

becoming culturally competent in different social environments by internalizing beliefs, values, norms of the society

Families

primary agent of socialization; teaches importance of historical context and ideology, bidirectional

Schools

agent of socialization; pass down values, beliefs, attitudes important in American society (i.e. individualism, patriotism, meritocracy)

Peer groups

agent of socialization; friendship group comprised of individuals of similar age/social status

• reinforce/contradict ideas, attitudes, beliefs that families promote

• peer pressure

• concern for the “wrong crowd”

Resocialization

when one’s sense of social values, beliefs, norms are reengineered (often deliberately) through an intense social process

Social status

position of prestige or privilege a person has in society/social group

Status set

all the statuses a person holds at once

ex: a daughter, a sister, a student

Ascribed status

status one is born into, involuntary

ex: assigned sex at birth

Achieved status

status one enters, voluntary

ex: earning a medical degree

Master status

status that stands out/overrides all others, can be ascribed or achieved

ex: being a mother

Roles

the duties and behaviors expected of someone who holds a particular status

Role strain

stress caused by the demands of a single role

ex: a student wants to get good grades and get scholarships = stress from studying + applications

Role conflict

stress caused when demands of multiple roles clash

ex: a grad student needs money for her next semester but also needs to provide for her child = stress from being a student + being a mother

Dramaturgical theory

social life is a theatrical performance where we are all actors on metaphorical stages with roles, scripts, costumes, props, sets

ex: SOC 100 lecture

• role: student

• script: be quiet and pay attention

• costume: casual outfit suited for the weather

• props: backpack, laptop

• set: Lincoln Hall Theater

New consumerism

shift from middle-class comfort to luxury consumption

caused by:

• workplace socialization

• rising inequality

• media and ads

• rise of credit

Reference groups

we compare ourselves to these groups to understand our position in society

Social group

people with shared identity + regular interaction

ex: your friend group

Social aggregate

people in the same place, without interaction or shared identity

ex: students in a lecture hall

Social category

people with a common characteristic but no necessary interaction

ex: all college students

Primary group

small, strong emotional ties that are enduring

ex: family, close friends

Secondary group

larger, impersonal, goal oriented ties

ex: coworkers, classmates

Dyad

a group of 2

• intimate but unstable

• dependent on both members participating

ex: a married couple

Triad

a group of 3

• more stable, allows for mediation

• not dependent on any one member

ex: three college roommates

Social network

collection of people tied together by a specific configuration of connections

can be characterized by:

• # of people involved

• structures (who is connected to whom)

• functions (purpose of connections)

Embeddedness

degree to which social relationships are reinforced through indirect ties (i.e. friends of friends)

Structural holes

gap between networks or two individuals who have complementary resources/information

an opportunity for someone to bridge the gap and connect the networks

Social capital

information, knowledge, connections that help individuals enter, gain power, or leverage social networks

ex: a blue-collar worker is friends with plumbers and mechanics, and thus never has to pay for repairs

Importance of social capital

• strengthens norms of reciprocity

• solve collective issues more easily

• everyday transactions less costly

• awareness of our shared fates

Capital

any asset, tangible or intangible, that can be used to produce an outcome

• economic capital: wealth and assets

• physical capital: tools, machines, equipment

• human capital: education, training, job experience

• cultural capital: tastes, manners, knowledge that signal social status

Bonding social capital

strong ties within a community, “horizontal”

ex: family members, close friends, neighbors

Bridging social capital

ties between different communities and across social boundaries, “vertical”

ex: career fairs/networking events

Decline of social capital in the U.S.

• decreased membership in civic organizations (PTA, unions)

• lower voter turnout and political engagement

• decline in informal socializing (dinner/block parties)

Causes of decline in social capital in the U.S.

• time and money pressure

• suburban sprawl + commuting

• electronic entertainment

• generational change

Organization

social network defined by a common purpose and clear boundary between ingroup/outgroup

Utilitarian organization

org provides income or personal benefit

ex: business

Normative organization

org pursues moral goals, voluntary

ex: charities

Coercive organization

org membership is forced

ex: prisons, military drafts

Isomorphism

when organizations within a field become more similar in structures, practices, cultures due to pressures from regulation, imitation, professional norms

• Coercive: legal, regulatory pressure (EPA regulations)

• Mimetic: copying successful models (IT certifications)

• Normative: professional norms (required degrees/certifications)

Deviance

any transgression of socially established norms, not necessarily illegal

ex: wearing a banana costume to class

Crime

violation of laws enacted by society, subject to social sanction, not necessarily deviant

ex: speeding

Social control

mechanisms that create normative compliance in individuals

• formal social sanctions

• informal social sanctions

Formal social sanction

mechanism of social control; rules or laws prohibit deviant criminal behavior

Informal social sanction

mechanism of social control, unspoken rules of social life

Social cohesion

social bonds, how well people relate to each other and get along on a daily basis

• mechanical and organic solidarity

• adaptive function

  • clarifies norms, increases conformity, strengthens reactions to deviance

  • can lead to positive social change

Merton’s deviance typology

• Conformity

• Innovation

• Ritualism

• Retreatism

• Rebellion

Strain theory

pressure from social factors (i.e. lack of income/education) drives people to commit crime

ex: people below the poverty line commit crimes to reach the American Dream because they can’t achieve it through legal means

Labeling theory

individuals subconsciously notice how others view or label them and base their self-identity on those reactions

• social groups can create deviance by settings rules for right/wrong

• labels wrongdoers as outsiders; deviants are made, not born

Primary deviance

first act of rule breaking that leads to being labeled “deviant”, people think/act differently toward you

Secondary deviance

subsequent acts of rule breaking after primary deviance as a result of being labeled “deviant”

Broken windows

minor acts of deviance must be controlled to avoid a spiral of crime and social decay

• any signs of disorder encourages more serious deviance

• controversial policing strategy

Incarceration

legally imposed deprivation of personal liberty, typically in a facility designed for that purpose

Purposes of incarceration

• retribution: punishment, offender should “pay” for their actions

• deterrence: dissuade from committing crime

• incapacitation: remove offenders from society

• rehabilitation: educate to prevent future crime

Incarceration demographics

• Bottom quintile of income

• Men

• African Americans

(often all three)

Felon disenfranchisement

restriction or denial of voting rights for individuals convicted of a felony, often persisting beyond incarceration

• 48/50 states

• 4 million Americans in 2024 or 1.7% of voting population

• reduces representation of people whose preferences are aligned with disenfranchised felons (e.g. investing in poor communities)