BOTAONE Modules 1-4 (Long Exam 1) - NOT comprehensive

Characteristics of Living Things, Criteria of Science, NOT organic molecules with Carbon, Functional Groups, Polysaccharides, Plant Waxes, Protein Structure & Functions, Plant Storage Proteins, Nitrogenous Bases, Metabolites, Discovery of Cell, Evolution of Eukaryotic Cell, Cell Wall, Plastids, Vacuole, Crystals, Microbodies, Flagella, Factors that Affect Membrane Fluidity, 6 Major Functions of Proteins, Endocytosis

Organization, Exchange of Energy with the environment, Interaction with Environment, Growth, Reproduction, Heredity, & Evolution

Characteristics of Living Things

Consistent, Observable, Natural, Predictable, Testable, & Tentative

Criteria of Science

oxides of carbon, carbonates, bicarbonates, cyanides, & compounds with 1 C

NOT organic molecules with Carbon

Functional Groups

special cluster of atoms that performs a useful specific function

Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amine, & Phosphate

Important Functional Groups

Hydroxyl

Important Functional Group:

\
structure: -OH

compound: alcohols

Carbonyl

Important Functional Group:

\
structure: >CO

compound: ketones & aldehydes

Carboxyl

Important Functional Group:

\
structure: -COOH

compound: organic acids

Amine

Important Functional Group:

\
structure: -NH2

compound: amines

Phosphate

Important Functional Group:

\
structure: -PO4

compound: organic phosphate

monosaccharides

building block of carbohydrates

glycerol & fatty acids

building block of lipids

amino acids

building block of proteins

nucleotides

building block of nucleic acids

Polysaccharides

many sugars linked together by covalent bonds through polymerization

polymerization

process of linking sugars together by covalent bonds to produce polysaccharides

2 types of polysaccharides

structural & storage polysaccharides

2 types of structural polysaccharides

cellulose & chitin

cellulose

structural polysaccharide:

\
* __most abundant organic compound__ on earth
* plants produce almost 100 billion tons/year
* toughest organic compound to digest
* major component of the __cell wall of plants & protists__
* __composed of a long straight chain of glucose molecules__

chitin

structural polysaccharide:

\
* in __exoskeletons__
* cell wall of fungi
* pure is leathery but becomes __hardened with calcium carbonate__
* composed of __polymer of glucose__ with a __nitrogen-containing__ appendage

2 types of storage polysaccharides

starch & inulin

starch

storage polysaccharide:

\
* polymer of __glucose__ molecules like cellulose but __differ in configuration of their glucose rings__
* may be simple (unbranched) or complex (branched)
* e.g. amylose, amylopectin
* plants store it in __plastids__
* animals store it as __glycogen__ in their liver & muscle cells

inulin

storage polysaccharide:

\
* polymer of __fructose__ molecules
* may be stored in other plant organs

Waxes

* __waterproof__ coating on plants and animals
* composed of fatty acids attached to long chains of alcohols

Carnauba, Candelilla, Bayberry, Jojoba oil, Cuticular, & Suberin

common plant waxes

amino, carboxyl, & R groups

3 groups that make up a protein

primary, secondary, tertiary, & quaternary

4 types of Protein Structure

primary

type of Protein Structure:

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sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

secondary

type of Protein Structure:

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__local folded structures__ that form within a polypeptide due to interactions between atoms of the __backbone__

tertiary

type of Protein Structure:

\
__3D structure__ of a polypeptide that form __hydrophobic__ interactions between one another

quaternary

type of Protein Structure:

\
made up of subunits of multiple polypeptide chains

Enzymatic, Structural, Storage, Transport, Hormonal, Receptor, Contractile & Motor, & Defensive

8 Types of Protein

zein, gliadin, glutenin, ricin D, & abrin

5 common plant storage proteins

adenine & guanine

purines

thymine & cytosine

pyrimidines

primary metabolites

* molecules directly involved in __growth, development, reproduction__, & other essential functions in all living systems

produced in __large amounts__ during growth phase
* ex. carbs, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides, chlorophyll, vitamins, organic acids

secondary metabolites

* natural products / **phytochemicals**
* NOT directly involved in plant growth but play important ecological roles
* mainly distributed in **cell walls & vacuoles**
* characterized by __complex structures & biochemical pathways__
* sources of medicines, flavorings, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, fragrances, colors, biopesticides, food additives, & drugs

terpenoids, phenolic compounds, & alkaloids

3 main groups of metabolites

terpenoids

main group of metabolites:

\
* dimers & polymers of 5-C precursors, **isoprene units**
* 50k identified (monoterpenes to polyterpenes)
* for aroma, pigments, stem elongation, etc.

menthol, lycopene, rubber, taxol, gibberellins, & beta-carotene

6 compounds that are terpenoids

phenolic compounds

main group of metabolites:

\
* form a __benzene ring, carboxyl group, & hydroxyl groups__
* has **antioxidant properties**
* treatment & prevention of diseases & cancer
* regulate cellular routes
* provide plant resistance, defense, rigidity, & color

coumarins, phenolic acids, tannins, lignins, & flavonoids

5 phenolic compounds

alkaloids

main group of metabolites:

\
* include __alkaline substance with N__
* nerve toxin or stimulant, pest control, pain killer, muscle relaxant, etc.

coniine, strychnine, tomatine, morphine, quinine, tubocurarine, & vincristine

7 compounds that are alkaloids

Mustard Oil glycosides, Polyacetylenes, & Cyanogenic glycosides

minor secondary metabolites

Mustard Oil glycosides

minor secondary metabolite:

\
* aka Glucosinolates
* N-S compounds in cabbage, broccoli, etc.

Polyacetylenes

minor secondary metabolite:

\
* in plants, fungi, lichens, moss, algae, & invertebrates
* with toxic properties

Cyanogenic glycosides

minor secondary metabolite:

\
* in pea & rose family
* apples, apricots, peaches, etc.
* seeds contain **amygdalin**
* degrades into __hydrogen cyanide__
* fatal in large amounts

Hans & Zacharias Janssen

invented the first microscope

Robert Hooke

first to use the term “cell” based on his observations of the cork sliver under the microscope

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

* made his own microscopes & observed various types of microscopic organisms
* __Father of Microscopy and Microbiology__
* first to give information about bacteria

Matthias Scheiden

found that __plants__ were composed of cells

Theodore Schwann

found that __animals__ were composed of cells

Rudolf Virchow

cells can only come from __preexisting cells__

cell theory

1. all organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. the cell is the __basic unit of structure & function__ in organisms
3. all cells come only from other cells

Evolution of Eukaryotic Cell

1. invagination of the __plasma membrane__ of __prokaryote__


1. enclosed the nucleoid with nuclear envelope into a __nucleus__
2. formation of __endoplasmic reticulum__
3. __materials__ became engulfed in the cell
4. formation of organelles

aerobic / heterotrophic bacteria

bacteria that led to the formation of the mitochondria

photosynthetic bacteria / cyanobacteria

bacteria that led to the formation of the chloroplast

spirochete

bacteria that led to the formation of the flagella

Endosymbiotic Theory

theory for the symbiotic relationship between prokaryotes

large prokaryotic cell

host cell in the Endosymbiotic Theory

centrioles & tight junctions

organelles in animal cells that are NOT in plant cells

cell wall, plastids, & central vacuole

organelles in plant cells that are NOT in animal cells

primary cell wall

type of cell wall:

\
surrounds:

* growing cells
* meristematic cells
* cells in succulent tissues

\
composed of:

* cellulose (beta-glucose monomers)
* hemicellulose
* **pectin**
* glycoprotein

secondary cell wall

type of cell wall:

\
surrounds:

* cells of secondary tissues
* ex. wood, cork

\
composed of:

* cellulose (beta-glucose monomers)
* hemicellulose
* **pectin**
* lignin / suberin

plasmodesmata

* pores on cell wall
* for exchange of substances

chloroplast, chromoplast, & leucoplast

3 main types of plastids

chloroplast

types of plastid:

\
* double membrane
* have **granum** (stack of thylakoids)
* 1-300 present; 5-10 microns
* have their own DNA, RNA, ATP, & proteins,
* around __perimeter of photosynthetic cells__ & adjacent to the __intercellular air spaces__ to maximize CO2 uptake
* pigments include **chlorophylls & carotenoids**

Chromoplast

type of plastid:

\
* found in flowers & fruits
* contain **carotenoid** pigments (yellow/orange/red)
* responsible for flower, fruit, root __coloration__
* **functions:**
* **serve as** __**attractants for fruit dispersal signaling**__ **that fruit is ripe**
* __**high nutritional value**__ **to animals**
* many birds eat chromoplast-rich fruits to __supply feathers with color__

Leucoplast

type of plastid:

\
* __non-pigmented__
* in organs associated with **long-term storage** (roots & seeds)
* has 3 types

amyloplast, elaioplast, & proteinoplast

3 types of leucoplast

amyloplast

type of leucoplast:

\
* starch grains
* synthesis & storage of starch
* in **statolith** for gravity detection
* capable of re-differentiating into other plastid types

elaioplast

type of leucoplast:

\
lipid synthesis & storage

Proteinoplast

type of leucoplast:

\
protein synthesis & storage

vacuole

* __largest, fluid-filled organelle__ with single-membrane, **tonoplast**
* formed from the fusion of small provacuoles in meristematic cells
* regulate turgor, storage, toxic materials,

anti-fungal enzymes & anti-herbivory compound, autophagy, & autolysis
* store crystals

crystals

* stored in vacuole
* (toxic) waste products of metabolic processes
* oxalic & carbonic acids
* rendered harmless by combining with Ca
* provides protective function
* has 2 types

Calcium oxalate & Calcium carbonate

2 types of crystals

Calcium oxalate

type of crystal:

\
* raphides, prismatic, druse, rosette, & sand
* from calcium + oxalic acid

Calcium carbonate

type of crystal:

\
* cystolith
* from calcium + carbonic acid

lithocyst

epidermal cell where cystolith can be found

microbodies

* single-membrane vesicles containing enzymes
* has 2 types

peroxisomes & glyoxysomes

2 types of microbodies

peroxisomes

type of microbodies:

\
* contain **oxidase** that catalyzes H2O2 production
* produce **catalase** that breaks down H2O2
* found in leaves

Glyoxysomes

type of microbodies:

\
* with enzymes for __converting fats to carbs__
* found in germinating oil-bearing seeds
* rarely found in animals cells

Flagella

* with a **9 + 2 pattern** of pairs of microtubules
* involved in cell movement
* occur in sperm cells of lower vascular & non-vascular plants

temperature, presence of unsaturated fatty acids, & cholesterol

factors that affect membrane fluidity

transport, enzymatic activity, signal-transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, & attachment to cytoskeleton & ECM

6 major functions of membrane proteins

phagocytosis, pinocytosis, & receptor-mediated endocytosis

3 types of endocytosis