rd&a exam 2

What is reliability in the context of measurement?

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure of behavior.

What are the three types of reliability?

Test-retest reliability, internal consistency reliability, and interrater reliability.

What is test-retest reliability?

It assesses the consistency of a measure over time by comparing results from the same subjects at different times.

What is internal consistency reliability?

It evaluates the consistency of results across items within a test.

What is interrater reliability?

It measures the degree of agreement among different raters or observers.

What is construct validity?

Construct validity refers to how well a test or tool measures the concept it is intended to measure.

What are the types of validity associated with construct validity?

Face validity, content validity, predictive validity, concurrent validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity.

What is face validity?

Face validity refers to the extent to which a test appears to measure what it claims to measure.

What is content validity?

Content validity assesses whether a test covers the representative breadth of the topic it aims to measure.

What is predictive validity?

Predictive validity evaluates how well a test predicts future performance or outcomes.

What is concurrent validity?

Concurrent validity examines how well a test correlates with a measure that has already been validated.

What is convergent validity?

Convergent validity indicates that a measure correlates well with other measures of the same construct.

What is discriminant validity?

Discriminant validity shows that a measure does not correlate with measures of different constructs.

What is reactivity in measurement?

Reactivity refers to changes in behavior when individuals know they are being measured.

How can reactivity be minimized?

By using unobtrusive measures or ensuring participants are unaware of the measurement process.

What are the four scales of measurement?

Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales.

What is a nominal scale?

A nominal scale classifies data into distinct categories without any order or ranking.

What is an ordinal scale?

An ordinal scale categorizes data with a meaningful order, but the intervals between values are not equal.

What is an interval scale?

An interval scale has ordered categories with equal intervals but no true zero point.

What is a ratio scale?

A ratio scale is similar to an interval scale but includes a true zero point, allowing for all arithmetic operations.

What is the importance of measurement scales?

Measurement scales determine the type of statistical analysis that can be performed on the data.

What is Cronbach's alpha?

A statistic used to measure internal consistency reliability.

What is Cohen's kappa?

A statistic that measures interrater reliability for categorical items.

What are demand characteristics?

Cues that influence participants' behavior based on their perception of the study's purpose.

What is social desirability bias?

A tendency for respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

What is 'incomplete' counterbalancing?

A method where participants are assigned to complete tasks in different orders, ideally with an even number assigned to each combination.

What are the four possible orders in a counterbalancing example?

CBSJ, BSJC, SJCB, JCB.

What is the purpose of counterbalancing in research?

To control for order effects by varying the sequence of conditions for participants.

What are the three main types of experimental designs?

Independent groups design, repeated measures design, and mixed factorial design.

What is a main effect in experimental design?

A main effect indicates a difference in the dependent variable scores across the levels of an independent variable.

What is an interaction in experimental design?

An interaction occurs when the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable differs depending on the level of another independent variable.

What is a factorial design?

A design that involves two or more independent variables, allowing researchers to examine the effects of each variable and their interactions.

How do you determine the number of experimental conditions in a complex design?

Multiply the number of levels of each independent variable.

What is the significance of a 2x2 factorial design?

It has two independent variables, each with two levels, resulting in four experimental conditions.

What is a simple main effect?

The effect of one independent variable at a specific level of another independent variable.

What is the difference between independent groups and repeated measures designs?

Independent groups measure different participants across conditions, while repeated measures measure the same participants across conditions.

What is a mixed factorial design?

A design that combines both independent groups and repeated measures, allowing for the analysis of multiple independent variables.

What are curvilinear relations in experimental design?

Relationships that are not linear, such as monotonic and U-shaped findings.

What is the purpose of reading assigned articles before exams?

To prepare for questions that require the application of course concepts to the article's content.

What types of papers might you encounter in research articles?

Literature reviews, empirical studies, and theoretical papers.

What should you identify in a research article regarding its research design?

The independent and dependent variables, as well as the overall research question.

What are the main findings of a research article typically focused on?

The results that connect to complex designs, including limitations and implications.

What is the ceiling effect in experimental design?

A situation where the dependent variable reaches its maximum limit, preventing the detection of differences.

What is the floor effect in experimental design?

A situation where the dependent variable reaches its minimum limit, making it difficult to observe differences.

What should you do once a main effect is detected?

Investigate further to determine the specific differences between conditions.

In a 2x3 design, how many independent variables and main effects are there?

There are 2 independent variables and 2 possible main effects.

What is the relationship between the number of independent variables and possible interactions?

Interactions are formed by combining independent variables in sets, typically not exceeding three variables at once.

What does a 2x2x2 design indicate?

It has three independent variables, each with two levels, resulting in eight experimental conditions.

What is the importance of interpreting both numbers and figures in complex designs?

Both representations help identify main effects and interactions, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the data.

What is the dependent variable in a complex design?

The dependent variable is always on the y-axis, such as score on a test.

What main effect was observed regarding children and adults in the complex design?

Children performed better than adults.

What main effect was observed regarding males and females in the complex design?

Females performed better than males.

Was there an interaction between sex and age group in the complex design?

No interaction was found between sex and age group.

In the second example, what main effect was observed regarding adults and children?

Adults performed better than children.

What interaction was noted between male and female performance in the second example?

Adult males performed better than adult females, while male and female children performed similarly poorly.

What are the two main types of experimental designs mentioned?

Independent groups and repeated measures.

What is a key difference between experimental and descriptive methods?

Experimental methods manipulate variables to establish causal relationships, while descriptive methods measure variables without control.

What does internal validity ensure in an experiment?

It ensures that the results are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, eliminating alternative explanations.

What is the purpose of random assignment in independent groups?

To balance individual differences between groups by randomly assigning participants to levels of the independent variable.

What is a matched groups design?

A design where participants are paired based on certain characteristics to control for individual differences.

What hypothesis was proposed regarding human memory for emotional images?

Human memory for emotional images (positive/negative) is better than memory for neutral images.

In an independent groups design, how many participants are used for each condition?

100 participants for each condition, totaling 300 participants for positive, negative, and neutral images.

In a repeated measures design, how many participants are used?

The same 100 participants are used for all conditions (positive, negative, and neutral).

What is the significance of counterbalancing in repeated measures?

It helps control for practice and fatigue effects by varying the order of conditions.

What is the research question regarding noise level and study effectiveness?

Does noise level influence study effectiveness?

What is the difference between experimental and correlational research questions?

Experimental questions involve manipulation of variables, while correlational questions observe relationships without manipulation.

We have an expert-written solution to this problem! What is the role of temporal precedence in establishing internal validity?

It ensures that the cause precedes the effect in time.

What does covariation refer to in the context of internal validity?

It refers to the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

What is the purpose of additional controls in experiments?

To minimize potential confounding variables and enhance the reliability of the results.

What is a critical confounding variable?

A variable that can affect the dependent variable and lead to incorrect conclusions.

What is the purpose of matching groups in a study?

To control for variables relevant to the study that could confound results.

What is the difference between independent group designs and repeated measure designs?

Independent group designs compare different groups, while repeated measure designs test the same group across multiple conditions.

What is random assignment in research?

A method used to ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in the study.

What are the advantages of repeated measure designs?

They require fewer participants, increase sensitivity, and reduce error variation by balancing extraneous variables.

What is an order effect in repeated designs?

Changes in performance due to the order in which conditions are presented.

What is counterbalancing?

A technique used to balance the order of conditions to average out order effects.

What is the floor effect?

A situation where performance on the dependent variable reaches a minimum, indicating the test is too hard.

What is the ceiling effect?

A situation where performance on the dependent variable reaches a maximum, indicating the test is too easy.

What does a complex design in research involve?

Using two or more independent variables (IVs) to examine their effects on a dependent variable (DV).

What is a main effect in a factorial design?

The effect of an individual independent variable on the dependent variable.

What is an interaction effect in research?

When the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on the level of another independent variable.

What is the displacement hypothesis in the context of social media use?

The idea that time spent on social media replaces time spent on mentally healthy behaviors.

What are the main dependent variables (DVs) in the SMU effect study?

FOMO (Fear of Missing Out), sleep, anxiety, and depression.

What is a limitation of the SMU effect study mentioned?

The study's findings may lack external validity as it was conducted at one university in Canada.

What is the significance of informed consent in research?

It ensures that participants are fully aware of the nature of the study and agree to participate voluntarily.

What is the purpose of using filler items in a study?

To control for demand characteristics and reduce bias in participants' responses.

What is the placebo effect?

A phenomenon where participants experience changes in their condition simply because they believe they are receiving treatment.

What is the difference between single blind and double blind studies?

In single blind studies, participants do not know their group assignment, while in double blind studies, neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.