psych memory test (julias version)

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

The course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions

connectionism

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memories

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

conscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

procedural memory & classically conditioned associations

Our implicit memories include...

space, time, frequency

Without conscious effort, we automatically process information about...

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

George Miller

made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

peg-word system

associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events

prefrontal cortex

Where do brain regions send input to for working memory processing?

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

hippocampus & frontal lobes

Brain structures involved in processing explicit memories

cerebellum & basal ganglia

Brain structures involved in processing implicit memories

cerebellum

plays key role in forming & storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia

involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3

- we index much of our explicit memory with a command of language that young children do not process

- the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature

Two influences that contribute to infantile amnesia

amygdala

When provoked by stress, this brain structure initiates a memory trace that boosts activity in the brains memory forming areas

flashbulb memories

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Eric Kandel

Studied the sea slug Aplysia and posited that learning and memory are evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways.

long term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

electroconvulsive therapy

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient and wipes out very recent memories

glutamate

One approach to improving memory focuses on drugs that boost the LTP-enhancing neurotransmitter...

retriveal Cues

words, sights, or other stimuli that remind us of the information we need to retrieve from our memory

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

context-dependent memory

Remembering, in many ways, depends on our environment

state-dependent memory

What we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are in the same state

mood congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

William James

Stated, "If we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing"

Henry Molaison

removal of hippocampus, could not commit anything to long term memory

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

encoding failure

Much of what we sense we never notice, and what we fail to encode, we will never remember

storage decay

Even after encoding something well, we sometimes later forget it

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

positive transfer

previously learned information often facilitates our learning of new information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) at the heart of many false memories

deja vu

Normally, we experience a feeling of familiarity (thanks to temporal lobe processing) before we consciously remember details (thanks to hippocampus and frontal lobe processing). When these functions (and brain regions) are out of sync, we may experience a feeling of familiarity without conscious recall

familiarity

a general sense that a certain stimulus has been encountered before; product of temporal lobe processing

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

algorithms

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics

heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than an algorithm

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Wolfgang Kohler

showed that humans are not the only creatures to display insight

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristics

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

planning fallacy

overestimating our future leisure time and income

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

motivated reasoning

Rather than using evidence to draw conclusions, using conclusions to assess evidence

representativeness heuristic

Consider the reaction of some non-Arab travelers soon after 9/11, when a young male of Arab descent boarded their plane. The young man fit (represented) their "terrorist" prototype & his presence evoked anxiety among fellow passengers

availability heuristic

If people from a particular ethnic or religious group commit a terrorist act, as seen in pictures of innocent people about to be beheaded, our readily available memory of the dramatic event may shape our impression of the whole group

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phonemes

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morphemes

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)