Cognition - Chapter 7, Barron's AP Psychology

Memory

any indication that learning has persisted over time

Three-box/information-processing model

model that proposes that there are three stages that information passes through before it is stored

Sensory memory

the split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information

Iconic memory

type of sensory memory that is a split-second perfect photograph of a scene

Echoic memory

type of sensory memory that is a brief (3-4 sec) perfect memory of sounds

Selective attention

the process by which one can pick out different encoding for encoding

Short-term/working memory

the information one is currently working with and is aware of in one's consciousness

Chunking

the grouping of information to aid short-term memory (no more than 7 groups)

Mnemonic devices

memory aids

Rehearsal

the repetition of information to aid short-term memory

Long-term memory

permanent storage of information

Episodic memory

type of long-term memory that involves specific events, stored in a sequential series

Semantic memory

type of long-term memory that involves general knowledge, stored as facts, meanings, or categories

Procedural memory

type of long-term memory that involves the performance of skills, stored sequentially, but complicated to describe with words

Explicit/declarative memories

the conscious memories of facts or events that we actively try to remember

Implicit/nondeclarative memories

the unintentional memories we might not realize we have

Eidetic/photographic memory

the ability to recall memories with extreme accuracy

Levels of processing model

model that proposes that there are two levels of processing, rather than distinct stages

Shallowly/maintenance processed

processing that involves meaningless rehearsal that leads to short-term retention

Deeply/elaborately processing

processing information in a meaningful way that increases its likelihood of being stored in memory

Retrieval

the gathering of information out of memory so that it can be used

Recognition

type of retrieval that is the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory

Recall

type of retrieval that retrieves a memory with an external cue

Primacy effect

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list

Recency effect

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a list

Serial position effect/curve

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning or the end of a list, but forget items in the middle

Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember information

Semantic network theory

theory that states that our brain forms new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meanings already in memories

Flashbulb memories

detailed snapshots of the moment and circumstances surrounding the moment shocking information was heard

Mood-congruent memory

phenomenon where there is a greater likelihood of recalling an item when our current mood matches the mood we were in when the event occurred

State-dependent memory

phenomenon where there is a greater likelihood of recalling events while in a particular state of consciousness

Recovered memory phenomenon

phenomenon where individuals claim to suddenly remember events they have "repressed" into the unconscious mind

Constructed/resconstructed memory

a false recollection of events

Decay

a cause of forgetting when we do not use a memory or its connections for a long time

Relearning effect

prediction that it will take less time to learn something again

Interference

a cause of forgetting where other information in your memory competes with what you want to recall

Retroactive interference

interference where the learning of new information interferes with the recall of older information

Proactive interference

interference where older information learned interferes with the recall of the more recent information

Hippocampus

part of the brain that encodes new memories

Anterograde amnesia

the inability to encode new memories

Retrograde amnesia

the loss of all memories before the trauma

Long-term potentiation

the strengthening of the connections between neurons through repeated firings

Phonemes

the smallest units of sound used in a language

Morpheme

the smallest unit of meaningful sound

Syntax

the arrangement of words in a sentence to make sense

Language acquisition

the process by which humans acquire the capacity to communicate in a language

Babbling

stage where innate babies experiment with phonemes

Holophrastic/One-word stage

stage where babies speak single words

Telegraphic speech/Two-word stage

stage where babies combine words into simple commands

Overgeneralization/overregularization

the misapplication of grammar rules

Nativist theory of language acquisition

theory that children are born with a language acquisition device

Language acquisition device

the part of the brain that allows rapid language learning

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

theory that the language we use might control or limit our thinking

Concepts

the cognitive rules that we apply to stimuli from our environment

Prototypes

type of thought where our concepts are based on what we think is the most typical example of that particular concept

Images

type of thought where our concepts are based on the mental images we create in our mind of the inside world

Algorithm

a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula

Heuristic

rule that is generally, but not always true that we can just to make a judgement in a situation

Availability heuristic

heuristics that involves judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind

Representativeness heuristic

heuristics that involves judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his/her mind

Overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate how accurate our judgements are

Belief bias

the bias where we make illogical conclusions to confirm our pre-existing beliefs

Belief perseverance

the tendency to maintain a belief even when the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted

Rigidity/mental set

the tendency to fall into established thought patterns

Functional fixedness

type of rigidity that involves the inability to see a new use for an object

Confirmation bias

bias where we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true

Framing

the way a problem is presented

Convergent thinking

thinking pointed towards one solution

Divergent thinking

thinking that searches for multiple possible solutions to a question