Knowt
Rights and protest (IB)
Civil Rights Movement in the United States (1954–1965)
Nature and Characteristics of Discrimination
Racism and Violence Against African Americans
Racial violence was widespread, especially in Mississippi, where the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was highly active.
White perpetrators of violence were often acquitted by all-white juries.
The KKK used violence and intimidation to suppress voter registration efforts.
By 1964, only 1% of Black citizens were registered to vote in Mississippi.
Segregation and Education
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) challenged Plessy v. Ferguson and its "separate but equal" doctrine.
The NAACP strategically worked to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson through legal action.
The Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, creating fear among segregationists.
Southern states resisted desegregation:
Florida introduced complex application processes to hinder Black enrollment in white schools.
Southern legislators signed the Southern Manifesto, vowing to resist school desegregation.
The ruling marked the first significant challenge to Jim Crow laws in the South.
Little Rock Crisis (1957)
Nine Black students attempted to enroll at Little Rock Central High School but were met with violent resistance.
The Arkansas governor ordered the National Guard to prevent their entry.
President Eisenhower intervened, deploying U.S. Army troops to escort the students.
Resistance continued, leading to the closure of all four integrated high schools the following year.
Arkansas also banned NAACP members from employment to suppress civil rights activism.
Economic and Social Discrimination
Jim Crow laws segregated public spaces, despite President Truman's efforts to combat segregation.
Black men in the South were disproportionately arrested for minor infractions.
Civil rights activists often faced job loss and arrests.
The Brown v. Board ruling was the first major legal blow to Jim Crow laws.
Non-Violent Protests
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956)
Sparked by Rosa Parks' arrest for refusing to give up her bus seat.
The boycott was a grassroots movement with 90% participation from the local Black community.
Black car owners provided rides to fellow protestors.
The federal court ruled in Browder v. Gale that bus segregation violated the 14th Amendment, leading to the boycott's success.
Resistance included violent backlash from white segregationists.
Freedom Rides (1961)
Organized by CORE to test desegregation laws in interstate travel.
Initially successful in the North but met with violence in the Deep South.
Buses were attacked, and riders were beaten.
The federal government intervened reluctantly, allowing riders to be arrested in Mississippi to avoid further violence.
Despite setbacks, the Freedom Rides successfully pressured the government to enforce desegregation in interstate travel.
Freedom Summer (1964)
Aimed to increase Black voter registration in Mississippi, where only 1% were registered due to discriminatory tests.
Volunteers included middle- and upper-class white students to draw national attention.
KKK violence resulted in the deaths of three civil rights workers, but the perpetrators were not charged.
The movement faced resistance, including intimidation, church burnings, and job losses.
Despite limited success in voter registration, the campaign built momentum for the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Legislative Changes
Civil Rights Act (1964)
Driven by the impact of the Freedom Rides and the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Despite strong opposition, President Lyndon B. Johnson successfully pushed it through Congress.
Outlawed racial discrimination in public spaces, workplaces, and schools.
Banned practices that restricted voting rights.
Voting Rights Act (1965)
Addressed barriers such as literacy tests that still prevented Black voter registration despite the Civil Rights Act.
MLK and activists in Selma faced violent resistance when trying to register voters, leading to Bloody Sunday.
Johnson, under pressure, signed the Voting Rights Act, banning discriminatory voting practices.
Within two years, Black voter registration in the South exceeded 50%.
Key Figures and Groups
Martin Luther King Jr.
Leader of the Montgomery Bus Boycott and co-founder of the SCLC.
His Letter from Birmingham Jail and "I Have a Dream" speech helped sway public opinion.
Maintained contact with Presidents Kennedy and Johnson to push for civil rights legislation.
Assassinated in 1968, his death contributed to the passage of the Fair Housing Act.
Malcolm X
A prominent Nation of Islam figure advocating for Black nationalism and self-defense.
Focused on urban issues rather than the South.
Criticized integration and civil rights leaders, arguing for self-reliance.
Assassinated in 1965, his death helped push the Voting Rights Act through Congress.
Lyndon B. Johnson
Initially opposed civil rights but later played a crucial role in passing the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965).
His administration responded to pressure from the Selma marches and Malcolm X's assassination.
Signed the Fair Housing Act a week after MLK's assassination.
Key Organizations
NAACP
Played a critical role in legal challenges to segregation, including Brown v. Board.
Helped organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott and Freedom Summer.
Criticized for being too moderate by some Black activists.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Emphasized non-violent resistance and played a key role in protests.
Organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott and voter registration drives in Alabama.
Clashed with Black nationalists over its integrationist stance.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
Led voter registration efforts in the South and organized Freedom Rides.
Became more radical in the late 1960s, eventually shifting towards Black nationalism.
Nation of Islam (NOI)
Advocated for Black separatism and self-sufficiency.
Opposed non-violent resistance and integration.
Gained many followers, particularly in Northern cities, but alienated white allies.
Apartheid South Africa (1948–1964)
Nature and Characteristics of Discrimination
"Petty Apartheid" Legislation (1948–1958)
First phase of apartheid under Malan and later Strijdom (National Party PMs).
Aimed to ensure economic, political, and social dominance over Black South Africans.
"Grand Apartheid" Legislation
Second phase of apartheid initiated by H.F. Verwoerd in the late 1950s.
Focused on territorial division of South Africa by race, leading to the so-called "independence" of different racial groups.
Claimed to be "moral" by arguing that Africans would achieve self-governance.
Segregation and Discriminatory Laws
Population Classification & Forced Removals:
Population Registration Act (1950) categorized people by race.
Families were split based on new classification criteria.
Group Areas Act (1950):
City centers designated for whites only.
Townships increased for Black residents with minimal amenities.
1/4 of Black people forcibly removed from their homes.
Pass Laws Act (1952):
Non-whites had to carry a 96-page identification book.
Criminalized for being in urban areas without permits.
Segregation in Daily Life
Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949): Banned marriages between whites and non-whites.
Immorality Act (1950): Criminalized sexual relations between whites and non-whites.
Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953): Segregated public facilities.
Bantu Education Act (1953):
Schools segregated by race.
Black children received inferior education designed to keep them in low-wage labor.
Extension of University Education Act (1959): Required universities to admit only one racial group.
Protests and Resistance
Non-Violent Protests
Bus Boycotts:
First major boycott in 1940.
1957 Alexandra bus boycott gained national attention and white sympathy.
Defiance Campaign (1952):
Organized by the ANC.
Peaceful protests against apartheid laws.
Increased ANC visibility but failed to repeal laws.
Freedom Charter (1955):
Unified anti-apartheid groups.
Called for democracy and social justice.
Led to the Treason Trial (1956–1961), where 156 activists (including Mandela) were arrested.
All defendants found not guilty, but ANC leadership was weakened.
Increasing Violence: Sharpeville Massacre (1960)
50,000 protesters gathered outside a police station.
Police opened fire, killing 69 unarmed people.
International outcry but no government response.
Led to a shift towards armed resistance.
Armed Struggle and the Rivonia Trial (1963–1964)
Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) formed as the armed wing of the ANC.
Operation Mayibuye plan for guerrilla war discovered.
Mandela and 10 others were arrested.
Sentenced to life imprisonment, marking the "end of an era" for the struggle.
South Africa faced increased international isolation.
Key Figures and Groups
Nelson Mandela
Leader of ANC and MK.
Key strategist in the liberation movement.
Principal defendant in the Treason and Rivonia Trials.
His speech during the Rivonia Trial inspired global support.
Albert Luthuli
President of ANC (1952–1967).
Advocate of non-violent resistance.
Nobel Peace Prize winner, which brought international attention to apartheid.
African National Congress (ANC)
Founded in 1910.
Organized major protests, including the Defiance Campaign.
Collaborated with the South African Communist Party (SACP).
Eventually banned and driven underground.
South African Communist Party (SACP)
Reformed in 1953 after being banned.
Had white leaders and strong ties to the ANC.
Played a major role in radicalizing the liberation movement.
Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)
Armed wing of the ANC, formed in response to state violence.
Focused on sabotage against government infrastructure.
Many members were arrested and the group dismantled by 1964.
Impact and Legacy
The apartheid system remained intact despite resistance.
Global opposition increased, leading to economic sanctions and cultural boycotts.
ANC leadership was weakened, but the struggle continued underground and internationally.
The imprisonment of Mandela and other leaders symbolized the resilience of the movement.
