A and P test 1

What is the function and purpose of the endocrine system?

Maintain homeostasis by sending chemicals and hormones through the body (slower/longer term)

What do the hormones do (endocrine system)

Controls growth,

development,

metabolism/energy

reproduction

stress response

long term body regulation

With which system does the endocrine system work closely?

The nervous system.

(nervous system=fast/short term)

What transport system does the endocrine system use?

The cardiovascular (blood) system.

What are target cells?

What the hormone can speak to

Cells that have receptors for specific hormones.

(if the cell doesn't have the receptor, the hormone will NOT impact (respond to) it)

Do hormones respond to all cells?

NO

If it doesn't have a receptor, it won't impact it

What are the types of hormones based on solubility?

Water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones.

Water vs Lipid Soluble Hormones

Lipid-soluble can move in and out of the cell at will, while water CANNOT (the water soluable needs a transport molecule or 2nd messenger/receptor)

What is up regulation?

Absence of hormones in the body will trigger the body to make more receptors for more target cells (more sensitive)

What is down regulation?

The decrease in the number of receptors for a hormone on target cells. (less sensitive)

What role do water-soluble hormones play as 1st messengers?

They bind to receptors on the cell surface to initiate a response. (bc they cant just move in and out)

What are cAMP and calcium in the context of hormone signaling?

They act as 2nd messengers in the signaling pathway.

How do lipid-soluble hormones function?

They diffuse through the cell membrane (dont need second messenger)

What is negative feedback in the endocrine system?

A process that reduces the output of a system to maintain homeostasis.(most common)

What is positive feedback in the endocrine system?

A process that increases the output of a system. (usu short term)

What controls hormone secretion?

hormonal signals, neural signals, changes in blood chemistry.

(change in blood, brain, hormones...)

Where is the pituitary gland located?

Below (inferior) the hypothalamus at the base of the brain.

QUESTION ON TEST- "If a patient has this and this issue, which endocrine organ might that impact?"

Pituitary gland

What is the difference between anterior and posterior pituitary?

The anterior pituitary produces hormones, while the posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

Anterior Pituitary

Hormones are made and released here

Released: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH (MSH)

Posterior Pituitary

Hormones are stored and released here

Released: ADH and Oxytocin

What are the targets of the hormones released by the pituitary gland?

TSH-thyroid

ACTH-adrenal cortex

FSH/LH-gonads (overies/testes)

PRL-mammary glands (milk production)

GH-most tissues+liver, bone, muscle

Where is the hypothalamus located?

Above the pituitary gland in the brain.

What does the hypothalamus control?

Everything (main control center) Speaks to pituitary which sends messages to rest of body

What are the two types of regulatory hormones?

1. Releasing Hormones (RH)

2. Inhibiting Hormones (IH)

What is the style of hypothalamic regulation?

Hypothalamus-> RH/IH-> pituitary -> target glands

Where is the thyroid located in relation to other structures?

The thyroid is located in the front of the neck,

Butterfly shaped

wraps around the trachea.

What does the thyroid gland secrete?

T3, T4, calcitonin

What nutrient is vital for the synthesis of thyroid hormones?

Iodine is vital for the synthesis of thyroid hormones.

Where are thyroid hormones synthesized and stored?

Thyroid hormones are synthesized in the follicular cells and stored in the colloid. (till needed, then its passed through capillary)

What mediates thyroid activity?

Thyroid activity is mediated by TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone).

What do thyroid hormones do?

T3 and T4 help to create homeostasis in the body (Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and influence growth and development with calcitonin)

Where is the parathyroid gland located in relation to other structures?

The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.

What hormone is secreted by the parathyroid and what is its role?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates calcium levels in the blood.

Where is the adrenal gland located in relation to other structures?

The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney.

What are the two parts of the adrenal gland and their roles?

The adrenal cortex (outer) secretes steroid hormones, and the adrenal medulla (inside) secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine

epinephrine and norepinephrine

fight or flight response

Where is the pineal gland located in relation to other structures?

The pineal gland is located in the brain, near the center.

What hormone does the pineal gland secrete and what is its role?

The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which impacts sleep and healing, and menstrual cycles

Where is the pancreas located in relation to other structures?

The pancreas is located behind the stomach, slightly to left

What are the two types of cells in the pancreas and what hormones do they secrete?

Alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase bg), and beta cells secrete insulin (decrease bg).

How do the cells in the pancreas raise or lower bg?

What are the definitions and types of diabetes?

Diabetes is characterized by high blood sugar; types include Type 1 and Type 2 and gestational

Type 1 diabetes and treatment

Autoimmune disorder (destruction of beta cells)

Requires insulin for treatment

Type 2 diabetes and treatment

diet, exercise...

Gestational diabetes and treatment

Pregnant patients

Diet and exercise

There is fetal risk

What are the risks of hyperglycemia?

Risks include damage to organs, nerves, and blood vessels. High blood glucose

What hormones are produced by the gonads?

The male gonads produce testosterone, and the female gonads produce estrogen and progesterone.

What is the role of hormones secreted by the intestines?

Intestinal hormones regulate digestion and nutrient absorption.

Where is the placenta located and what hormones does it produce?

The placenta is located in the uterus during pregnancy and produces hormones like hCG, estrogen, and progesterone. It supports fetus, softens cerviz, relaxes pelvic

Intestines Hormones roles

(secretin and cck) regulate digestion and w pancreas and gallbladder

What is the role of vitamin D in the skin?

Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin, processed by liver/kidneys, and helps raise calcium

What does adipose tissue release and what does it do?

Relases Leptin- inhibits hunger.

What are the two endocrine roles of the kidneys?

The kidneys produce erythropoietin and renin.

What is the endocrine role of the heart?

The heart secretes atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP) to regulate (lower) blood pressure.

What is the role of the thymus?

Mature of T-cells (WBC) for the immune system.

How do the hormones interact?

Antagonistic: result depending on the other hormone

Synergistic: additive effect

Permissive: One hormone is needed for the other to work fully

Integrative: they produce diff results

What do growth hormones impact?

Growth hormones impact growth, metabolism, and body composition.

What are the phases of General Adaptation Syndrome?

The phases are

1. Alarm-immediate response (epinephrine),

2. Resistance-longer than a few hrs (glucocorticoids),

3. Exhaustion-failure to resolve

What hormonal changes occur with aging?

Normal: menopause, changes in GH, thyroids (energy and focus)

Abnormal: disease level problems

LOCATION:

Hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland

Thyroid Gland

Adrenal Gland

Pancreas

Pineal Gland

Parathyroid Glands

Heart

Thymus

Adipose Tissue

Digestive Tract

Kidneys

Hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland

Thyroid Gland

Adrenal Gland

Pancreas

Pineal Gland

Parathyroid Glands

Heart

Thymus

Adipose Tissue

Digestive Tract

Kidneys

Cardiovascular components

blood (connective tissue), heart (pump), blood vessels (pipes)

What are the functions of blood?

1. Transport -gases/nutrients/wastes/hormones all over the body,

2. Regulation- PH/temp/fluid

3. Protection -clotting/immune

What is the normal blood volume in adults?

The normal blood volume is approximately 5 liters.

1 LITER =

1000 mL

What is plasma and its role?

Plasma is the liquid component of blood, its more than half of its volume, and it transports nutrients, hormones, and waste.

Contents of blood

RBC, WBC, platelets, plasma

Hematocytoblasts pathway in bone marrow

Hematocytoblasts -> myloid stem cells -> RBC, most WBC

Lymphoid stem cells become lymphocytes

What are blasts and bands in blood?

immature cells

Erythrocytes: requirements, role, shape

RBC- has Hgb

Carries oxygen throughout body

Requirments: iron, amino acids, B12, folate, EPO

Bioncave no nucleus - lives about 120 days

What is the role of hemoglobin?

Hemoglobin carries oxygen in red blood cells.

What causes anemia?

Cause: Low RBCs, low Hgb, or abnormal Hgb

Common causes: blood loss, Hb deficiency, B12/folate deficiency, genetic disorders

Symptoms: fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, pale skin Significance: Less O2 to tissue → decreased cellular respiration → decreased ATP production

Where are red blood cells formed? DONT UNDERSTAND NEED CLARIFICATION)

Red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow from hematocytoblasts.

How are WBCs produced?

Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)

GM-CSF stimulates Granulocyte and Monocyte production

What are the types of white blood cells? (Leukocytes)

The five types are neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes.

What is the role of neutrophils?

1st responders (most of WBC-short lifespan)

Neutrophils respond to acute infections through phagocytosis and degranulation.

Dead neutrophils=pus

What is the role of eosinophils?

Pest control

Eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions and asthma.

Release enzymes at injury site to help resolve inflammation

What do basophils do?

Alarm system

Basophils release histamine (dilates blood vessels) and heparin (prevents blood clotting) during allergic responses.

What is the role of monocytes?

Presentation

Largest

Monocytes become macrophages and dendritic cells to present antigens.

Release Cytokines (immune response)

What are the roles of lymphocytes?

Special ops team

Lymphocytes are involved in adaptive immunity.

3 types: B cells, T cells, NK cells

What is leukopenia? Leukocytosis? Leukemia?

Low WBC count

High WBC count

Cancer of WBCs indicated by extreme leukocytosis

What is the role of platelets?

Thrombocytes

Helps w blood clotting.

Lifespan 7-10 days

What are the three phases of hemostasis?

When s/o stops bleeding

The three phases are vascular, platelet, and coagulation.

Vascular phase

Triggered by vessel damage=sticky

Platelet phase

platelets attach to exposed surfaces

forms platlet plug

clots itself

Coagulation phase

Blood clotting

NEEDS Calcium and Vitamin K

Has 3 pathways

Coagulation phase: 3 Pathways

1. Extrinsic

2. Intrinsic

3. Common

Extrinsic pathway

Outside bloodstream (in vessel wall)

Bgins when releases Factor III

Activates Factor X

Intrinsic pathway of coagulation

Inside bloodstream

Begins w proenxymes being exposed to fibers at injury site

Activates factor X w other enzyme

Common pathway factors

Begins w factor X

Activates prothrombin activator, produces blood clot

Thrombin vs prothrombin

Prothrombin = inactive precursor;

Thrombin = active enzyme

Fibrinogen vs fibrin

Fibrinogen = soluble;

Fibrin = insoluble strands (clot)

Clotting is controlled by:

Natural anticoagulants like antithrombin, heparin, protein C, plus intact endothelium chemicals.

Fibrinolysis

Clot breakdown by plasmin (dissolves fibrin)

Surface antigens

A, B, D(Rh)

What are the blood types based on surface antigens?

Blood types include A, B, AB, and O, determined by the presence of specific antigens.

How do we know if someones blood is positive or negative?

If it has the D (Rh) antigen

Agglutination

Clumping of RBCs when antibodies bind antigens.

Universal donor:

Universal recipient:

Donor= O-

Recipient= AB+

What is Rh incompatibility?

Rh incompatibility occurs when an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive fetus.