ELEMENTS OF ARGUMENT AICE GLOBAL MIDTERM REVIEW

score

Argument

A set of statements offering reasons to persuade someone that a conclusion is true

Conclusion

The main claim an argument is trying to get you to accept

Therefore Test

Inserting the word therefore before a statement to test if it is the conclusion

Reason

A claim offered to support the conclusion of an argument

Because Test

Inserting the word because before a statement to test if it is a reason

Intermediate Conclusion

A statement that functions as both a reason and a conclusion

Assumption

An unstated premise that must be true for an argument to work

Negative Test

Testing an assumption by inserting its opposite to see if the argument fails

Counter

Argument

Indicator Words

Words that signal reasons, conclusions, or counter

Conclusion Indicators

Words like therefore, thus, hence, so, consequently, must, should, ought

Reason Indicators

Words like because, since, as, in order to, otherwise

Counter

Argument Indicators

Misrepresenting Data

Drawing conclusions that do not accurately reflect the data

Insufficient Data

Drawing conclusions from too little evidence

Unrepresentative Data

Using evidence that does not reflect the wider population

Ad Hominem

Attacking the person instead of the argument

Appeal to Authority

Claiming something is true because an authority says it is

Appeal to History

Assuming the past determines what should happen now

Appeal to Popularity

Claiming something is true because many people believe it

Circular Reasoning

Using the conclusion as one of the reasons

Begging the Question

Assuming the truth of what is being argued

Confusing Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Treating one type of condition as the other

Correlation Not Causation

Assuming correlation means causation

Inconsistency

Making contradictory claims within an argument

Rash Generalisation

Drawing a broad conclusion from insufficient evidence

Sweeping Generalisation

Ignoring legitimate exceptions to a general rule

Restricting the Options

Presenting only two choices when more exist

Slippery Slope

Claiming one step will inevitably lead to extreme consequences

Straw Man

Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to refute it more easily

Tu Quoque

Rejecting criticism by accusing others of the same fault

Weak Analogy

Comparing two things that lack important similarities

Invalid Deduction

Reasoning that does not logically follow

Causal Flaw

Incorrectly identifying cause and effect

Equivocation

Shifting the meaning of a word during an argument

Conflation

Treating two different concepts as if they are the same

Support Weakness

Reasons only support part of the conclusion

Consistency Weakness

Parts of the argument contradict each other

Reliance Weakness

Argument depends on an unsupported assumption

Appeal Weakness

Using an irrelevant or disproportionate appeal

Analogy Weakness

Using an analogy that lacks meaningful similarity

Failure to Respond to Counter

Arguments

Accurate

Free from error or distortion

Ambiguous

Having more than one possible meaning

Analyze

Breaking something into parts to examine it

Bias

A preference or prejudice that distorts judgment

Clarify

Making ideas easier to understand

Critical Reading

Actively analyzing reasoning and evidence

Data

Facts or information used to support conclusions

Empirical

Based on observation or experience

Evidence

Facts or data supporting a conclusion

Fallacy

An error in reasoning

Inference

A conclusion drawn from evidence and reasoning

Logic

Rules governing valid reasoning

Opinion

A belief not necessarily based on objective evidence

Premises

The starting points of an argument

Relevance

Importance to the issue being discussed

Values

Beliefs about what is important or goo