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cyclic AMP
broadcasts the signal to the cytoplasm
second messengers
small, nonprotein, water soluble molecules. They rapidly spread throughout the cell by diffusion.
dephosphorylation
remove phosphate groups from proteins
protein phosphates
enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins
phosphorylation cascade
hypothetical pathway containing 2 different protein kinases
protein kinase
an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein
ligan gated ion channel
membrane receptor with a region that can act as a gate for ions
G protein coupled receptor
cell surface transmembrane receptor that words with the G protein
G protein
A protein that binds the energy-rich molecule GTP
hormones
used for long distance signaling
ligand
a molecule that specifically binds to another molecule
reception
target cells detection or a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell
endocrine signaling
specialized cells release hormones, which travel via circulatory system to other parts of the body, where they reach target cells that recognize and respond to them
synaptic signaling
occurs in animal nervous system, an electrical signal moving along a nerve cell triggers the secretion of neurotransmitters molecules carrying a chemical signal.
synapse
narrow space between the nerve cell and its target cell
growth factors
compounds that stimulate nearby target cells to grow and divid
paracrine signaling
molecules travel only short distances, influence cells in vicinity
transduction
converts the signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response
signal transduction pathway
a sequence of changes in a series of different molecules
binary fission
division in half
origin of replication
specific place on chromosome where DNA of the bacterial chromosomes begin to replicate
cell cycle control system
cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle
checkpoint
control point where stop and go ahead signals can regulate the cycle
G 0 phase
non-dividing state
density dependent inhibition
crowded cells stop dividing
anchorage dependence
the need for cells to attach to a surface to grow, survive, divide
transformation
Cells takes up and incorporates DNA from its surroundings
Benign tumor
abnormal collection of cells, not spreading (local)
malignant tumor
spreads to other organs
matastasis
spread of cancer cells to locations distant from original site
cell plate
structure that forms in the center of a dividing cell during cytokenesis
cleavage furrow
a shallow grave in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate
cleavage
rapid series of cell division
metaphase plate
midway between the spindles two poles
kinetochore
proteins that have assembled on specific sections of chromosomal DNA at each centromere
centrosome
contains material that functions throughout the cell cycle to organize the cell microtubules
depolymerize
shorten
polymerize
elongate
mitotic spindle
consists of fibers made of microtubules and proteins
M phase
divides
G2 phase
grows more as it completes preparations for cell division
S phase
countnues to grow as it copies its chromosomes
G1 phase
cell grows
interphase
G1+S+G2, intense metabolic activity and growth
cytokenesis
division of the cytoplasm
mitosis
division of the genetic material in the nuclei
centromere
a region made up of reproductive sequences in the chromosomal DNA where the chromatids are attached most closely to its sister chromatid
sister chromatids
joined copies of the original chromosome
gametes
reproductive cells
somatic cells
all body cells except the reproductive cells
chromatin
complex of DNA and proteins that is the building material of chromosomes
chromosomes
DNA molecule associated with a protein
genome
a cells endowment of DNA
Cell division
reproduction of cells
recombinant chromosomes
produced from crossing over
meiosis I + meiosis II
2 consecutive cell divisions results in 4 daughter cells
meiosis
gamete formation involving cell division
zygote
fertilized egg
haploid cells
single set of chromosomes, gametes
diploid cells
2 chromosome sets, somatic cells
homologous chromosomes
same length, centromere position, and staining pattern. Both chromosomes carry genes controlling the same inherited characters
sexual reproduction
2 parents, unique combinations of genes, not identical
Asexual reproduction
single individual is the sole parent, no need for fussion of gametes, identical daughter cells
locus
a genes specific location along the length of a chromosome
somatic cells
all cells in body except gametes, 46
gametes
reproductive cells (Sperm+egg)
genetics
the scientific study of heredity and inherited variation
heredity
transmission of traits from one generation to the next
sex linked gene
a gene located on either sex chromosome
male
one x chromosome and one y
female
2 X chromosomes (one from each parent)
Wild type
the phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations
2 types of sex chromosomes
X and Y
linked genes
genes located near each other on the same chromosome are inherited together in genetic crosses
genetic recombination
the production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in P generation parent
crossing over
recombination of linked genes
parental types
matches phenotypes of P generation originally crossed
Recombinant types
new combinations of shape and color
linkage map
a genetic map based on recombination frequencies
map units
expressed distances between genes in…
nondisjunction
one gamete get 2 copies, one gamete gets none. Members of a pair of homologous chromosomes dont move apart properly during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II.
aneuploidy
zygote will have an abnormal number of a particular chromosome
monosomic
only one chromosome from a pair is present
trisomic
extra copy of chromosome
polyploidy
chromosomal alteration
deletion
chromosomal fragment is lost
duplication
a broken fragment may become reattached as an extra segment to a sister / non-sister chromatid
inversion
a chromosomal fragment reattach to original chromosome but in reverse orientation
translocation
fragment join a non-homologous chromosome
down syndrome
result of an extra chromosome
barr body
inactive x in each cell of a female condenses
hemophilia
the absense of one or more of the proteins required for blood clotting
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
progressive weakening of the muscles and loss of coordination, lack of dystrophin (key muscle protein)
deletions
losses off nucleotide pairs in a gene
insertion
addition of a nucleotide pair in a gene
silent mutation
an observable effect on the phenotype
nucleotide-pair substitution
the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides
point mutation
changes in a single nucleotide pair
signal peptide
targets the protein to the ER
