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the Crusades
holy wars fought between Christians and Muslims; they were the first armed Christian pilgrimage and the first official Christian holy war in history
background of the Crusades
The Byzantine Emperor, Alexius I, asked Pope Urban II for help against the Seljuk Turks after they took over Palestine and started making travel for Christian pilgrims more difficult. The Pope saw this as an opportunity to provide papal leadership for a great cause: to rally the warriors of Europe for the liberation of Jerusalem and the Holy land from the Muslims.
Pope Urban II
he called the first crusade and offered clemency during the 11th century in Rome. by initiating the crusade, he left us with consequences by beginning ideas of holy war and worsening a conflict between Christians and Muslims that still exists today
the First Crusade
occurred from 1095-1099
the capture of Antioch (1098)
the capture of Jerusalem (1099)
The Latin Principalities (Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem)
the Fourth Crusade
occurred from 1202-1204
the sack of Constantinople
the Latin Christian Government (1204-1261)
weakened the Byzantium
the impact of the Crusades
they left an inheritance of deep bitterness in Christian-Muslim relations. each side dehumanized the other, viewing those who followed the other religion as unbelievers. the crusades shocked and dismayed the Muslims. they also proved to be a disaster for Jewish-Christian relations and legal restrictions on Jews to increase gradually throughout Europe.
Philip IV
political figure in France (the Fair) r. 1285-1314
the Estates General (1302)
included the representatives from the clergy, the nobility, and townspeople
helped diffuse each group’s power (allowed kings to maintain control)
Edward I
political figure in England from 1272-1307
the Parliament (1295)
barons and church lords → the House of Lords
Knights and burgesses → the House of Commons
the Romanesque Style
flourished in Europe (C. 1000-1150)
features:
rectangular basilica shape
barrel vaults and cross vaults
massive pillars and stone walls
→ heavy, serious, and solid
the Gothic Style
started in the Ile-de-France (the 12th century)
features:
pointed arches
ribbed vaults
flying buttresses
stained-glass windows (rose windows)
→ the interior invoked light, harmony, and order
the Mongols
pastoral nomads from central Asia (modern-day Northern Mongolia)
carved out the largest contiguous land empire in world history
attacked China, central Asia, Russia, Poland, Hungary, Germany
conquered Iran and Iraq
used sophisticated military tactics and mobility
left a trail of depopulation & devastation
Chinngis Khan
“Universal Ruler”
what - united the various Mongol groups into one confederation, developed the army and conquered Asia
where - Central Asia
when - C. 1200
significance - he is known for increasing connections between Eurasian regions and unifying the East and West
the Black Death
bubonic plague that originated in South/Central Asia
spread by flea-invested, plague-carrying rats that accompanied Mongol armies and merchant caravans
one of the worst natural disasters in human history
recurred every 10 to 12 years throughout the 14th century and continued until the 18th
the Crisis in the Church
a clash between popes and emperors
Pope Boniface VIII vs. King Philip IV of France
Pope Clement V (1305-1314)
the Avignon Papacy
who - Popes
what - decline in papal prestige
where - Avignon, France
when - C. 1300
why - decreased the status of the catholic church and the papacy
the Great Western Schism
Urban VI (supported by England, resided in Rome) vs. Clement VII (supported by France, resided in Avignon)
excommunicated each other, causing schism
the Council of Pisa (1409)
deposed both popes and elected Alexander V
popes refused to step down, resulting in 3 popes
the Council of Constance
ended the schism
elected Martin V as Pope (r. 1417-1431)
recognized by every significant ruler
the Renaissance
“rebirth” a period of innovation in culture, art, and learning that took place between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
major features of the Renaissance
urban society
age of recovery
revival of Greco-Roman culture
emphasis on individual ability
the Intellectual Renaissance
many advances in education and many important thinkers came about during this time period
focused a lot on humanist education and producing complete citizens who could participate in the civic life of their communities
individualism
emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual, promotes realizing one’s goals and desires, valuing independence and self-reliance
secularism
position that religion should not influence civic and state affairs
Renaissance humanism
an intellectual movement based on the study of the classical literary works of Greece and Rome
education of the Intellectual Renaissance
grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy (ethics) and history = studia humanitas
mathematics, logic, and astronomy
a “Renaissance man”
thought to be a practical preparation for life. Its aim was not to create great scholars but to produce complete citizens who could participate in the civic life of their communities.
Niccolo Machiavelli
Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer
what - he wrote the Prince which advised rulers to use deceit and violence when needed to achieve their goals
where - Italy
when - late 1400s early 1500s
why - he influenced rulers throughout all of history because of what he wrote in the Prince
the Artistic Renaissance
Artists sought to imitate the art of ancient Greece and Rome
tried to master realistic depiction of people and objects
dynamic poses, expression, gesture, interaction, perspective and depth
Filippo Brunelleschi
credited with creating the linear perspective by using a horizon line, parallel lines and a vanishing point to portray depth and space realistically
designed chapels and the cathedrals
early 15th century
Donatello
created the west’s first major nude statue since Roman times (David)
Leonardo da Vinci
painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, and writer
considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived
universal genius, “Renaissance man”
the Holy Roman Empire
one of Europe’s largest medieval and early modern states (962-1806)
a confederation of small and medium-sized political entities
the Imperial Diet (elected the Holy Roman Emperor)
Charles V
Ruler of both the spanish empire from 1516
Ruler of the holy roman empire from 1519
Dealt with ottoman incursions, religious distractions, and the difficulties of ruling a wide spread of territory
Brought under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern europe, and the spanish viceroyalties in the americas and asia
Voluntarily stepped down by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556
the European Expansion
the long expansion of European power to the rest of the world that began in the 15th century
European states expanded rapidly and aggressively due to their relative poverty and pursuit of direct access to luxury goods
motives of the European Expansion
fantastic lands
The Travels of John Mandeville
economic motives
new sources of wealth
overseas exploration
religious zeal
means of the European Expansion
maps
Ptolemy’s Geography (1477)
ships and sailing
hybrid ships
improved navigational techniques
astrolabe
compass
military technology
gunpowder
cannons
the Columbian Exchange
the enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, human populations, manufactured goods, precious metals, communicable diseases , and ideas between the Eastern and Western hemispheres that occurred after 1492
significance of the Columbian Exchange
one of the most significant events in the history of world ecology, agriculture, and culture
the Protestant Reformation
a religious movement that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches
the permanent split within the Catholic Church that resulted in multiple competing denominations of Christian practice and belief
causes of the Protestant Reformation
The continuing crisis of the catholic church
Ritual, secularization, wealth, greed, corruption, abuses, scandals (sale of indulgences, simony, pluralism)
Cultural
Society (better educated, more humanistic and secular, critical of the church)
Growing individualism
Technological
Printing press (helped spread new ideas)
Spiritual
Growing piety, mysticism, and religious fervor
Political
England (a political instability)
The holy roman empire (decentralization)
Martin Luther
what - criticized church practices, rejected pope authority, wrote 95 theses, argued the bible provided all necessary teachings for salvation (“by scripture alone”), preached idea that salvation could not be attained through priests or donations but only through faith (“by faith alone”)
where - Germany
when - C. 1500
why - Luther’s ideas led not only to the establishment of Protestantism, but also other protestant denominations. his ideas became central beliefs of Protestant theology and continue to shape it.
Jean Calvin
what - laid out doctrine of predestination, argued that God had preordained everyone to either salvation or damnation, created Calvinism with strict moral code, discipline, and pure religious practices, fused church and society into the theocratic reformed church
where - Geneva
when - 16th century
why - Calvin’s ideas contributed to the broader development of Protestant theology and the understanding of the relationship between church and state; his insistence on simplicity and plainness in worship influenced the appearance of Reformed churches; his concepts still continue to shape Calvinism
Henry VIII
what - broken the official English church, renamed the church of England - away from the Roman Catholic Church, he then seized great Wealth from English Catholic institutions and used it to fund his military buildup
where - England
when - C. 1500
why - his ideas initiated religious churches in England; his break with the Roman Catholic Church led to English Reformation and the establishment of the Church of England
the Catholic Reformation
while it began as a reaction against Protestantism, it culminated in reforming the Church itself
the culmination of the Reformist trends that had been present in the Catholic Church for centuries before Martin Luther set off the Protestant break with the Roman Church
aims of the Catholic Reformation
to reform the church
to secure church’s traditions
the Council of Trent
Church officials debated all of the articles and charges that had been leveled against the Church
reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings
scripture and tradition
faith and good works
Sacraments
also started educating priests through seminaries (colleges for new priest training)
tactics of the Catholic Reformation
Pope Paul III commissioned a report to evaluate the possibility and necessity of reform, which concluded that there were numerous abuses abuses within the Church that had to be corrected. the essential beliefs and practices of the Church were to be judged entirely correct and Luther (and soon, Calvin) was judged to be entirely wrong.
the Inquisition
Pope Paul III approved the creation of a permanent branch of the church devoted to holding Protestantism in check: the Holy office. It existed to search out signs of Heresy, including Protestantism, in areas under catholic control. It had the right to subject people to interrogation and torture and in extreme cases, to execute them.
the Index of Forbidden Books
created by Pope Paul IV, would go on to form the basis of royal censorship in all Catholic countries for the next two centuries. a list of books forbidden by Roman Catholic churches as dangerous to the faith or morals of Roman Catholics. He also enforced that the Bible was not to be translated into vernacular languages but instead had to remain in Latin, an explicit rejection of the Protestant practice of translating the Bible into everyday language for Christians to read and interpret themselves.
the Thirty Years War
The most devastating religious conflict in European history
dragged on for decades and saw the reduction in the population of German lands between 20-40%
saw the most horrific acts of violence, the greatest loss of life, and the greatest suffering among both soldiers and civilians of any of the religious wars of the period
causes of the Thirty Years War
Religious dispute
Catholics vs protestants
The peace of augsburg (1555)
Contributed to tension between the catholics and the protestants
Granted right to the secular princes to settle the religion (catholicism or lutheranism) within their own territories
Oppression
Failed to recognize catholicism
Political rivalries
Holy roman empire
Wanted to extend its power under one ruling family (Habsburg)
Relied too much on the catholic church and rome
Sweden, denmark, german states
Wanted to gain control over the baltic sea
France
Allied with the protestants across europe
Spain
Supported all anti-protestant groups
results of the Thirty Years War
already-weak centralized power of Holy Roman Empire further reduced
Catholicism itself benefited from the early success of the Habsburgs. Roughly half of Western and Central Europe was Protestant in 1590 but only one-fifth of it was in 1690; in large part because few people remained protestants in Habsburg lands after the war
The Thirty Years War is thought to have claimed between 4 and 12 million lives. Around 450k people died in combat. Disease and famine took the lion’s share of the death toll. Estimates suggest that 20% of Europe’s people perished, with some areas seeing their population fall by as much as 60%.