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Catabolic processes
Breakdown of molecules to release energy
Anabolic processes
Building new molecules at the cost of energy
Isolated system
a part of the material universe that exchanges nothing—neither matter nor energy—with its surroundings
Open system
not isolated, exchange energy or matter with surroundings
Energy
capacity to increase order
Heat
molecular kinetic energy, energy of random atomic-molecular motion
Physiological work
any process that increases order in an animal
Efficiency of energy transformation
(output of high-grade energy) / (input of high-grade energy)
Metabolic rate
rate at which animals consume energy
Respiratory quotient (RQ)
(moles of CO2 produced per unit time) / (moles of O2 consumed per unit time)
Burst exercise
sudden intense exercise
Glycolysis
Glucose or glycogen is converted into pyruvic acid
Occur in the cytosol
Each molecule of glucose (6C) is converted into two molecules of pyruvic acid (3C).
Two molecules of NAD are reduced to NADH2 per molecule of glucose catabolized.
Two molecules of ATP are used and four are formed for each glucose processed, providing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule
Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
During aerobic catabolism, pyruvic acid formed during glycolysis enters the mitochondria by facilitated diffusion (: mediated by carrier protein).
Pyruvic acid is then oxidized in the mitochondria.
The six carbons of each glucose molecule catabolized emerge in the form of six molecules of CO2 as the pyruvic acid molecules produced by glycolysis are processed by the ________.
1 pyruvic adic molecule per cycle produces 3 CO2 so 6 CO2 in total for 2 pyruvic adic molecules
For each glucose molecule catabolized, the _______ produces eight molecules of NADH2 and two molecules of FADH2.
Formed from NAD and FAD which are reduced
Again, 2 pyruvic adic molecules per glucose molecule
Two molecules of ATP are produced for each molecule of glucose catabolized.
Electron-transport chain (ETC)
4 major protein complexes (I-IV) located in the inner membranes of mitochondria
O2 acts as the final electron receptor
Will not run out as it is continuously supplied to the cell and the product of reduction H2O can be pissed out, thereby carrying electrons out of the cell
Oxidative phosphorylation
The process of forming ATP from ADP by use of energy released in the transport of electrons through the ETC
As energy is released in electron transport, it is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane → creates a proton elecro-chemical gradient. Protons diffuse back across the membrane toward eqilibrium through a ATP-synthesizing protein (ATP-synthase).
In the ETC 3 complexes (I, III and IV) pump protons across the membrane.
Estimated that 10 protons are pumped for every for each pair of electrons that move through the whole ETC.
Anaerobic glycolysis
Only glucose and glycogen work for fuel in most conditions
Makes only 2 ATP per glucose molecule
Only works in tissues that have a way of maintaining redox balance for NAD without O2.
Used in vertebrate skeletal muscles if O2 is too low
Pyruvic acid is the final electron acceptor in the anaerobic cell → reduces it to lactic acid
The main factor of whether a cell can carry out _____________ at a substantial rate is its expression of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), the enzyme that catalyzes reduction of pyruvic acid.
Creates a redox balance
Aerobic
requires O2
Anaerobic
can function without O2
P/O ratio
measures efficiency of ATP production by oxidative phosphorylation
Coupling
linkage of ETC & oxidative phosphorylation
Uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1)
Exists in the mitochondrial membrane of certain types of specialized cells. Makes it so that ETC and oxidative phosphorylation are not linked
Steady state
a mechanism is in ___________ if
(1) it produces ATP as fast as ATP is used
(2) it uses raw materials (e.g., foodstuff molecules) no faster than they are replenished
(3) its chemical by-products (besides ATP) are voided (or metabolically destroyed) as fast as they are made
(4) it does not cause other changes in cell function that progress to the point of disrupting cell function.
can go on indefinitely
Phosphagens
compounds that serve as temporary stores of high-energy phosphate bonds
Hypoxia
low O2 in tissues
Anoxia
No O2 in tissues
Metabolic depression
a regulated reduction in the ATP needs of the animal (or certain tissues) to levels below the needs ordinarily associated with rest
Oxygen regulation
maintenance of a steady rate of O2 consumption regardless of the level of O2 in the environment
Oxygen conformity
rate of O2 consumption falling as environmental O2 levels fall
Oxygen deficit
when the body’s supply of O2 from the environment (uptake) is less than its theoretical O2 demand for exercise.
Redox balance
the cell possesses the means to remove electrons from the compound as fast as electrons are added to it.
Maximal exercise
uses maximal rate of O2 consumption for the individual
Submaximal exercise
uses less than maximal rate of O2 consumption for the individual
Can be supported aerobically (except during transition) and can be sustained indefinitely
Supramaximal exercise
uses more than maximal rate of O2 consumption for the individual
Pay-as-you-go phase
When, in submaximal exercise, the breathing and circulatory systems have accelerated and meet the full O2 demand of the exercise.
All ATP is made aerobically
VO2max
aerobic capacity or maximum aerobic power
Aerobic scope for activity
the difference (-) between an animal’s VO2max at that temperature and its resting rate of O2 consumption at the same temperature
Aerobic expansibility
the ratio of an animal’s VO2max over (/) its resting rate of O2 consumption
Average daily metabolic rate (ADMR)
amount of energy an animal expends in a day
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
base metabolism during rest in a thermoneutral environment
Endothermy
an animal’s tissues are warmed by its metabolic production of heat
Thermoregulation
maintenance of a relatively constant temperature
behavioural (seeking heat/shade)
physiological (sweating, shivering)
Ectotherm/poikilotherms
body temperature is determined by the environment/not elevated by metabolism
Heterothermy
difference in thermal relations from one time to another, or one body region to another, within a single individual
Homeothermy
same (or similar) temperature in whole body regulated by physiological or behavioural means
Thermoneutral zone (TNZ)
Temp at which an animal’s resting metabolic rate is independent of ambient temperature and constant
Smaller-bodied species have a tighter ____ than larger-bodied
Lower-critical zone
lowest ambient temp in TNZ
Upper-critical zone
highest ambient temp in TNZ
Dry heat transfer
Heat transfer that does not involve the evaporation (or condensation) of water
Proportional to the difference between the animals body temp and the temp of the environment
Thermal conductance (C)
a measure of how readily heat can move by dry heat transfer from an animal’s body into its environment
Animals with high C need a higher metabolic rate to stay warm in a cool environment
Low resistance to dry heat loss (insulation)
Insulation
resistance to dry heat loss
Countercurrent heat exchange
Requires artery and vein to be close to each other
Allows the heat to ”short-circuit”, preserving the heat and keeping extremities cool
Good because O2 can still get to the extremities without much heat loss
High-amplitude cycling of body heat
Allowing the body to get cold during the night and hot during the day
Stores some heat in the body, can later be voided by nonevaporative means
Using convection of cool air instead of sweating and losing water
Acclimatization of peak metabolic rate
animal increases the maximum rate at which it can produce heat by sustained, aerobic catabolism
Acclimatization of metabolic endurance
an increase in the length of time that a high rate of metabolic heat production can be maintained
Insulatory acclimatization
increase in the animal’s maximum resistance to dry heat loss (insulation)
Hypothermia
body temp below normal
Controlled hypothermia
allowing the body temperature to fall in a controlled manner under certain circumstances (ex. hibernation)
Temporal heterotherms (hibernators)
animals that can do controlled hypothermia
Arousal
process of rewarming the body after hibernation
Saturated fatty acids (SFA)
contain no carbon-carbon double bonds
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs)
contain one carbon–carbon double bond per molecule
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
fat that contains two or more double bonds per molecule
More effective hibernation (lose less weight and lower body temp)
Social hibernation
hibernating in groups
Better survival rates as huddling increases insulation and huddling animals require less of an increase in metabolic rate than those hibernating alone or in small groups
Synchronized arousal: waking up at the same time
Lowers energy costs as an animal is not pressed against a bunch of cold bodies