PSY 305 Cognition Exam II

modal model

we know everything we do because we have a memory system, which is then broken down into representation, processing, and a storehouse of what has been learned.

what makes up a memory

visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory, semantic, temporal attributes

memory as representation

individual distinct multidimensional representations of what has been learned

memory as process

acquisition/learning/encoding of information, leading to storage and maintenance of information, then retrieval

memory as storehouse

we look for specific memories as representations stored in our brain as concepts within the hippocampus and temporal lobe

memory stores

broadbent’s model

three main structures:

s-system: sensory information

p-system: consciousness and limited capacity

secondary memory: everything else

two components of memory. short term memory has a limited capacity where information is rapidly lost from and we must maintain it via rehearsal, whilst long term memory has an unlimited capacity.

memory capacity limit

number of items we can recite back without errors 50% of the time. 7 ± 2 items, or 4 ± 1. we start chunking letters into words and words into sentences

rate of information loss

after a delay, we become inaccurate on recalling particular information from short term memory because old information is constantly being replaced with new information without rehearsal

modal model

makes a number of specific predictions about storage and retrieval relying on free recall

free recall

a series of stimuli scored as correct if a correct item is recalled regardless of its position in a sequence

serial recall

a series of stimuli scored as correct if a correct item is recalled in the correct sequence

serial position curve

recalling items first from short-term memory then long term memory results in both a primacy and recency effect

modal model account of primacy

the first few items of a sequence receive more rehearsal than the others and are more thoroughly transferred to LTM

modal model account of recency

the last items shown in a sequence should be the first to be recalled because they are more present in the STM

final free recall

immediate free recall followed by an unrelated activity and then recalling all the stimuli again. proves recency effect is due to the STM because STM stimuli cannot be rehearsed resulting in negative recency

problems with modal model account

is the recency effect actually due to unloading items from the short-term memory?

bjork & whitten methods

free recall where participants perform a secondary task (math equations) before and after each word

neuropsychological evidence for modal model

HM case study where individual was missing hippocampus and amygdala with retrograde amnesia could have normal perception, speech, above average intelligence, and immediate memory

amnesia

impairments are multimodal, immediate memory is intact, impairment happens despite intact perception and intellect

anterograde amnesia

cannot learn new information

retrograde amnesia

cannot remember old information

working memory

the system for the temporary maintenance and manipulation which is necessary for complex cognitive processes such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension

baddeley and hitch

storage systems are for holding information. one is phonological and one is spatial where a central executive determines what information goes where, the phonological loop receives the most attention

dual task studies

perform a primary task whilst simultaneously performing a secondary task intended to take up the short term memory, resulting in an overt rehearsal of the secondary task. the system responsible for rehearsal and the system responsible for learning are not the same thing

phonological loop

two main components, phonological store and articulatory control processes.

phonological similarity effect

difficult to rehearse words that are phonologically similar (<20% accuracy rate) because items in phonological stores are based on phonemes and similar phonemes interfere

irrelevant speech effect

performance on memory task is impaired if items are accompanied by other verbal material (even if written). this coding in the loop is phonemic, not semantic

word length effect

the phonological loop is finite so longer words take up more space and it is easier to rehearse shorter words

articulatory suppression

subject gets a tongue depressor and repeats words to prevent rehearsal because ear and mouth have privileged access to the phonological loop, results in abolishment of the word length effect and specifies the loop is best for reading and comprehension

visuo-spatial sketchpad

stores and manipulates visuo-spatial information needed when information cannot be put into phonological representation therefore verbal information does not interfere with this

central executive

coordinates system, retrieval, selective attention. related to frontal lobes. least studied but most important portion

episodic buffer

limited capacity temporary storage system controlled by CE that works with LTS

prefrontal cortex

important in maintaining task relevant information over the short term and during distractions

distraction/interference

damaged PFC can’t hold information about the end-game of a task, therefore you can’t move much information from STM → LTM

encoded interactions

attributes and features which are bound into an episode

automatic encoding

you remember things you pay attention to and automatically encode a lot of information

controlled encoding

focusing attention on a subset of information for better encoding

maintenance rehearsal

simply repeating items over again

LOP framework

doubts about depth

semantic processing isn’t always the best case (rhyming tasks) and there are more factors than encoding in play during retrieval

distinctiveness

memory is determined by how well the information specifies the event, such as color, gender, age

von restorff effect

making one item distinct by changing the color increases remembering

organization/chunking

grouping individual items into larger units based on relationships around the items

elaboration

linking information together to generate your own example

self-referent encoding

making information personally relevant, potentially the deepest level of processing

spacing effects

spacing out your learning results in better retention, distributing encoding results in better learning

testing effect

testing yourself on learned material works better than simply studying

retrieval

reconstruction/reactivation of attributes stored during encoding

transfer appropriate processing

the problem with LOP effect is it is mostly focused on encoding so 32 sentences were presented, all with one word missing, and there were two encoding and two retrieval conditions (semantic and rhyming). a match between encoding and retrieval conditions meant better memory

multiple memory systems

idea that there are multiple independent memory systems specialized to each solve a different problem or operation

memory taxonomy

explicit memory

tests that directly require conscious memories and participants know that it is happening. retention, encoding, and retrieval impacted

implicit memory

tests that subconsciously measure retention. a “catch-all” for all of the things we learn while unaware such as mastery of driving or riding a bike. laws of memory don’t apply as much. less influenced by things like retention interval

implicit memory task

rating words and then filling in the words from a blank, you are more likely to use words from the rating words category even if they are generally infrequently used words

declarative memory

knowing that you know something, includes personally relevant information and facts

procedural memory

cognitive and motor skills that you cannot really verbally express how you know. characterized by gradual, incremental learning

retrospective memory

memory for the past in which we can reflect back and recollect instances

prospective memory

memory for things we remember to do in the future. pervasive in every day life (remembering to take your pills, go to work)

factors influencing success on prospective memory

habitual vs infrequent (habitual is easier), event based vs time based (event based is easier)

episodic memory

remembering information that is tied to a specific spatiotemporal context (an event) related to the hippocampus. needed for specific episodes like high school grad

semantic memory

a person’s general knowledge about the world (facts, concepts, vocabulary) semantic memory is not tied to a specific context. needed for specific facts such as the fact that graduation generally occurs in the spring

use of semantic memory in memories

fills in gaps that we forgot with general knowledge of life, potentially leading to errors and biases

constructive processes

taking information and combining it with existing knowledge

reconstructive processes

retrieval of information in combination of existing knowledge

schemas

organized clusters of knowledge about events or objects based on experience. in the study where people tried to recall a professor’s office, 30% remembered books despite no books being present because of the ____ that there are books in a professor’s office

memory accuracy

memory is subject to errors and biases due to how it is degrading. memory can be primed if we are told information because we can add it to our episodes.

memory distortions

combinations of an original event, schemas, and informations after an event. implications of this: eyewitness testimonies and ID of criminals may be less accurate.

intrinsic context

features which are integral part of target stimulus

extrinsic context

other features present at time of encoding (time
place, cognitive state)

temporal context

context “cues” for which items should be recalled, items are associated with the temporal context present

lag recency effect

after recalling a given word, the next word recalled tends to come from a nearby serial position

mood congruency

mood influencing memory

state dependent memory

the state you’re in psychologically (i.e. under the influence) changing how things are. unusual cues at encoding are not present at retrieval leading to poorer performance.

forgetting

The process by which we lose information
(typically over time)

locus of forgetting

consolidation

activity that is assumed to be necessary after studying to solidify it into a relatively permanent form

ribot’s law

brain damage impairs recently formed memories to a greater extent than older memories

decay

memory traces fade spontaneously with time

problems with theory of decay

Over the course of 100 yrs in psychology little evidence has been found supporting pure decay, Baddeley & Scott (1971)

interference theory

similar items in memory can get in the way of each other and accounts for most forgetting

retroactive interference

new information interferes with ability to recall old information

proactive interference

old information interferes with ability to recall new information

retrieval failures

many “forgotten” memories can be retrieved if the appropriate context is reinstated

availability

information is adequately encoded and stored in the system

accessibility

information can be adequately retrieved from the system

search failures

inability to find what you’re looking for, directing and focusing searches

cue-overload principle

the more information that is subsumed under a given retrieval cue, the lower the probability of retrieving any given piece of information

list-length effects

as list-length increase, probability correct decreases