ap psych unit 1-3 vocab words REAL

Behavioral psychology

The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Biological psychology

The scientific study of how the brain and nervous system influence mental processes (learning) and behavior.

Biopsychosocial approach

An approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints

Bimodal distribution

A distribution with two different modes, or peaks. This indicates that there are two different values (or ranges of values) that appear more frequently than others in the dataset

Case study

A descriptive technique in which one individual/ group is studied in-depth to explore complex issues

Cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, attention, language, problem-solving, and learning.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

Convenience sample

Participants are selected based on their availability and proximity to the researcher, rather than being randomly chosen

Control group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00)

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Dependent variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Falsifiability

The principle that for a scientific hypothesis/theory to be valid, it must be testable and capable of being proven false

Gambler's Fallacy

A cognitive bias that occurs when someone believes that the probability of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes. For example, if a coin is flipped and lands on heads several times in a row, a person might erroneously believe that tails are "due" to occur next, even though each flip is independent and the probability remains the same

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted the outcome

Human factors psychology

Focuses on how people and machines interact, used to create/improve products

Humanistic psychology

Evaluates an individual as whole, emphasizes their unique identity, and believes that everyone can reach their full potential

Hypothesis

A testable prediction

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Independent variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Informed consent

Participants are informed about the purpose, procedures, and risks of a study before agreeing

Likert Scale

Used in surveys to measure people's attitudes/opinions, consisting of a series of statements to which respondents indicate their level of agreement, usually ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree"

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution

Median

The middle score in a distribution

Meta-analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Natural selection

Organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring with similar traits

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating/controlling the environment

Normal curve

A symmetrical curve representing the distribution of data, where most of the data points cluster around the mean, with fewer data points further away from the mean in either direction

Operational definition

Tells how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study

Placebo effect

An effect on behavior caused by an inert substance, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Practical significance

The real-world importance/relevance of a research finding. Even if a result is statistically significant (such as being unlikely to have occurred by chance), it might not be practically significant if the effect size is too small to matter in real-life applications

Psychodynamic psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior

Quantitative

Data that can be measured and expressed numerically

Qualitative

Non-numerical data collected to understand individuals’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Random sample

A sample that is representative of a population because each member has an equal chance of being selected

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Replication

Repeating a study, usually with different participants/situations to see if the original finding can be consistently reproduced

Sampling bias

A flaw in the sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Self Report Bias

The inaccuracies that occur when individuals provide data about themselves, due to memory errors or misunderstanding questions

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Social Desirability Bias

Occurs when participants in a study respond in a way that they believe will be viewed favorably by others, distorting the validity of data

Standard deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining the attitudes/behaviors of a group, by questioning a random sample of the group

Third variable

When an unaccounted-for variable influences both variables being studied, which may create a false appearance of a direct relationship between them

Directionality problem

The difficulty in determining which variable causes the other in a correlational relationship (does A cause B, or does B cause A)

Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Activation-synthesis theory (dreams)

During REM sleep, the cerebral cortex processes nerve impulses being sent from the body to the brain stem and turns it into a dream.

Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands (organs) located above the kidneys and secrete the hormones epinephrine & norepinephrine

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

Alpha waves

Slow electrical currents in the brain that are observed during a relaxed, awake state, such as while daydreaming or meditating

All or none response

A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Amygdala

Two bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion, such as fear and aggression.

Antagonist

A molecule that inhibits a neurotransmitter’s action.

Association areas

Areas of the brain that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).

Axon

The long thread-like portion of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment​

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain; responsible for automatic survival functions.

Carl Wernicke

Discovered that after damage to a specific area of the left temporal lobe (Wernicke’s area), people were unable to understand others’ words and could speak only meaningless sentences​

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord; receives, processes, and responds to sensory information 

Cerebellum

The “little brain” coordinates movement/balance and enables nonverbal learning/memory.

Cerebral cortex

Interconnected neural cells that cover the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

Charles Darwin

Darwin argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies.

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The study of the brain activity linked with mental processes (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Consolidation Theory (dreams)

Memory consolidation – dreaming is a functional process that converts memories from short-term to long-term storage.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

CT Scan (computed tomography)

X-ray photographs taken from different angles are combined by computer to represent a slice of the brain’s structure.

Delta Waves

The large, slow electrical currents in the brain associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3.

Dendrites

A neuron’s extensions that receives messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

Depressants

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A recording of waves of electrical activity across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Endocrine System

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

fMRI (functional MRI)

Reveals blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; show brain function as well as structure.

Frontal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans, and judgments.

Glial Cells (glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure that directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking) and is linked to emotion/reward.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Interneurons

Neurons in the central nervous system; they process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Latent Content

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

Lesion

Damage to brain tissue

Limbic System

Neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, and hippocampus) associated with emotions and drives.

Manifest Content

According to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.