AP Psych unit 1

hindsight bias

when people believe that they knew the outcome of an event after it has happened, even if they didn't actually predict it beforehand

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 031)

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 035)

theory

explanation based on evidence

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an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)

operational definition

a statement describing exactly what researcher meant, so that others can understand and replicate study

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a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 042)

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

ex: only getting honors student for a research abt how relationships affect GPA

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 050)

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

double-blind procedure

participants and research staff don't know who got placebo or who got actual drug

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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

ex: in an experiment abt time studying and grade confounding variable would be naturally smart ppl

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content ___ and predictive ___.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 053, 622)

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)

standard deviation

measure of how spread out the data is from its mean

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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 059, 621)

inferential statistics

where you can infer that the sample data applies to a larger pop.

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numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 065, 776)

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)

empiricism

observation + experimentation = science

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the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 003)

functionalism

how mind works together as a whole

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early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)

experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 005)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 006, 266)

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 006)

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 007, 119)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 007)

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 009)

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 010, 135)

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

biological psychology

study of the links btwn genetics, neurology & hormones and psychological processes

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the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 135)

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 013)

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 462)

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 754)

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

understanding how people behave at work and using that knowledge to help businesses and employees succeed

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the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)

human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 015, 590)

community psychology

studies how communities work together to make life better for everyone

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a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 016, 324)

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 016)

Socrates & Plato

believe knowledge is innate (born within)

Aristotle

believed knowledge is learned

john Locke

Said people are born as a Tabula Rasa (blank slate)

Wilhelm Wundt

father of psych

made first lab dedicated for psych, studied reaction time

Edward Titchener

made structuralism

Structuralism

looking at individual parts of the mind/structures of the mind

introspection

method used to see the structures/parts of the mind

unreliable, cant be repeated

William James

taught first psych course in harvard

made functionalism

Mary Calkins

Student of William James

first woman to be president in APA

Stanley Hall

took psychology to the US

william Wundt’s student

first American to have PhD in psychology

opened first psychology lab in America

first president of APA

margaret Floy Washburn

First woman to get a PhD for psychology

second woman to be president of APA

Dorthea Dix

helped advocate for more humane treatment in asylums