🌿 Natural & Environmental Influences on Development

Explain how the various theories of development are tied to physical development

Piaget: Emphasized children’s physical interactions with the world as the main source of learning

Vygotsky: Emphasized the social and cultural influences but did not tie learning to biological maturation

Domain-general models suggest physical development influences cognitive abilities across domains.

Motor development (e.g., crawling, walking) is driven in part by physical maturation and innate programming.

List and Describe Different teratogens and what pregnant moms should be aware of

Teratogens: Environmental ( external) factors that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development

• Viruses or illnesses (e.g., rubella and chickenpox)

• Chemicals (e.g., pesticides, mercury, lead )

• Medications and drugs (legal or illegal, including alcohol and nicotine)

  • Alcohol → fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: learning disabilities, delayed growth, facial malformations, behavioral issues.

  • Cigarette/marijuana/recreational drug use → low birth weight, higher risk of developmental disorders and infection

• Maternal stress/anxiety (can alter the fetus’s chemical/physiological environment)

  Teratogens can affect different organ systems depending on when exposure occurs.

During what phase of development are teratogens most harmful?

Embryonic Stage ( 2nd-8th week): This is when major organ systems and structures (heart, limbs, CNS, eyes, etc.) are developing

• Some effects also occur during fetal stage, especially with brain development (which continues late) the Central Nervous System (CNS)

What are the parenting styles and the 4 dimensions of parenting styles

Parenting Styles

1. Permissive Style

2. Authoritarian Style

3. Authoritative Style

4. Neglecting/Disengaged Style

4 Dimensions of Parenting Styles:

• Warmth/responsiveness

• Expectations

• Rule clarity/consistency

• Parent/child communication

Detailed explanations of the parenting styles

Permissive Style

• High warmth/responsiveness

• Low expectations

• Low rule clarity/consistency

• Low communication

Children may be more agressive, immature, less independent

Authoritarian Style

• Low warmth/responsiveness

• High expectations

• High rule clarity/consistency

• Low communication

low self-esteem, lower academics, obedient and respectful

Authoritative Style

• High warmth/responsiveness

• High expectations

• High rule clarity/consistency

• High communication

these kids do the best, high self esteem, indepedant, less likely to be delinquent

Neglecting/Disengaged Style ( worst outcome )

• Low warmth/responsiveness

• Low expectations

• Low rule clarity/consistency

• Low communication

insecurely attached, impulsive and aggressive, difficult relationships,

Cultural considerations in parenting styles

Cultural Considerations

• Authoritarian parenting may be more effective in collectivist cultures (e.g., China) than in individualist cultures (e.g., Canada, U.S.)

  • Black families may adopt a hybrid approach of harsh discipline & warmth, often linked to better outcomes than for White children

    • harsh punishments tend to be associated with better outcomes for black children

Is spanking OK?

• Spanking must be:

  • "Corrective"

  • "Transitory and trifling in nature"

  • "Not stemming from frustration or anger"

Spanking is Associated with:

• Externalizing behaviors (e.g., aggression)

• Internalizing behaviors (e.g., anxiety, withdrawal, depressive symptoms)

• Cognitive Development (e.g., slightly lower IQ)

Impacts of Media (TV) Exposure on Children and Adults

Infants & Young Children:

• Infants under 2 should not be exposed to TV/screens.

• Their brains develop rapidly, and they learn best through interaction with people, not screens.

• TV is not developmentally beneficial at this age.
  (American Academy of Pediatrics)

Infants from low SES households (Tomopoulos et al., 2010):

• Watched average 2.5 hours of TV per day starting at 6 months.

• By 14 months, cognitive and language development delays were observed.

• Longer screen time = greater delay.

• Type of content matters: Adult programs (e.g., soap operas, crime shows) lead to greater delays than child-directed shows like Sesame Street.

McBeth-Williams Study (1970s) – Longitudinal Field Study

Compared three towns:

• NoTel (no TV),

• UniTel (1 channel),

• MultiTel (4 channels).

• Studied children (grades 4, 6, 7, 9) and adults (55+) before and after NoTel received television.

Findings after NoTel gained TV access:

• Children:

  • Greater sex-role (gender-role) identification due to TV stereotypes.

  • Declines in cognition.

  • Decreased reading abilities (especially in Grades 2 & 3).

  • 2x increase in schoolyard aggression.

• Adults 55+:

  • Declines in leisure activities (less sports, hiking, socializing).

  • More sedentary lifestyles (staying home to watch TV).

What are the effects of the media

• Delays in cognitive and language development (especially in infants).

• Behavioral effects: Increased aggression, reinforced gender stereotypes.

• Academic effects: Decreased reading comprehension.

• Lifestyle effects in adults: Less physical activity and social engagement.

Romanian Orphanage Study (Environmental Influence on Development)

Late 1970s–1980s Romania: No birth control, leading to unwanted pregnancies

• Many children placed in orphanages with very poor conditions

  • Babies left in cribs, not picked up or cared for

  • Milk bottles tied to cribs, no solid food

  • Severe neglect and underfunded institutions

What happened:

• In 1989, after dictator was overthrown, Romania opened up

• Foreigners began adopting children from these orphanages

• Researchers used this natural situation to study the impact of neglect on development

Key Findings:

• Physical Recovery: Children adopted in their first year caught up physically by age 4

• Cognitive Development (IQ): Cognitive recovery dependent on age of adoption

  • Earlier adoption = better cognitive recovery

  • Children adopted before 6 months showed higher IQs

  • Older at adoption = less cognitive catch-up

• Attachment:

  • Children adopted later showed long-term issues with:

    • Social relationships

    • Trust

    • Mental health

Early environment has a huge impact on development

• Earlier adoption = better physical, cognitive, and emotional outcomes

Poverty & Health

Low SES (Socio-Economic Status) leads to:

• 1.5x higher infant mortality

• 3x higher rates of delayed immunizations

• 2-3x more deaths from accidents

• 3-4x more deaths from disease

Describe how family structure impacts kids ( role of the father, family structure, and divorce)

Fathers: less affectionate/time than mothers, but strong father-child bonds = better psychological adjustment.

• Children prefer fathers for play.

Divorce:

• Most kids adjust well over time.

• Negative effects more likely if:

  • Divorce follows low-conflict marriage.

  • Ongoing parental conflict continues.

• Effects include increased depression, substance abuse, poor academic performance.

Nontraditional families (single, same-sex, blended) are now common; outcomes depend more on parenting quality than structure.

What is the trajectory of physical development ( baby)

• Begins at conception when a zygote is formed.

• Germinal stage (1.5-2 weeks) : The zygote divides and doubles, becomes a blastocyst ( identical cells with no specific function), and implants in the uterus on day 6.

• Embryonic stage (2–8 weeks): Different cells start to assume different functions, and the blastocyst becomes an embryo and has a high risk of miscarriage. Major organs begin forming (heart, brain, lungs).

• Fetal stage (9 weeks to birth): organs mature, and the embryo becomes fetus, especially the brain, The final months are dedicated to physical strengthening- size and weight and beating heart

Brain Development: 18 Days and Beyond

The human brain begins developing just 18 days after fertilization

• Unlike most organs that are fully formed at birth, the brain continues to develop into adolescence and early adulthood

  • Neural proliferation occurs between day 18 and the end of the sixth month, with neurons developing at a rapid rate of up to 250,000 per minute.

  • Brain stem develop first followed by cortisol structures

What is the trajectory of physical development ( infant instincts and major milestones)

Infant reflexes: Survival automatic motor behaviours triggered by specific types of stimulation

• Sucking reflex: Newborns automatically suck on objects placed in their mouths.

• Rooting reflex: When their cheek is stroked, infants turn toward the touch and search for a nipple.

Major motor milestones include: Sitting up, crawling, standing unsupported and walking

• Complex behaviour requires calculation, speed of movement

Physical Maturation, Body weight, and Cultural parenting practices influence motor development

6-24

What is the trajectory of physical development ( childhood )

Childhood marks changes in body proportion

• Growth spurts happen in distinct periods instead of a steady continuous process

• Mini spurts occur

What is the trajectory of physical development ( Adolescence)

Adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood, is marked by profound physical changes, driven largely by hormonal shifts.

• prepare the body for reproduction and involve the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.

The pituitary gland stimulates physical growth.

• Sex hormones ( estrogens&androgens trigger growth and bodily changes)

Puberty or sexual maturation The attainment of physical potential for reproduction

• Primary sex characteristics (directly related to reproduction):

  • Development of reproductive organs & genitals.

• Secondary sex characteristics (not directly related to reproduction):

  • Breast enlargement in females.

  • Deepening voice in males.

  • Pubic & body hair growth in both sexes.

Key Milestones in Puberty:

Females: Menarche (onset of menstruation)

• Occurs after full physical maturity is reached.

Males: Spermarche (first ejaculation)

Genetic influence and Environmental influences impact

Physical Development in Adulthood

Physical peak in their early 20s. At this stage:

• Strength, coordination, cognitive speed, and flexibility are at their highest levels.

30s and 40s, natural aging results in:

• Decline in Muscle tone and increase in body fat

• Deterioration in essential sensory functions (vision, hearing, and smell)

• Female Fertility declines

• Menopause ( end of period ) reduced estrogen

• Male ejaculation declines and sperm and testoseterne levels

Physical Development in Old age

Motor coordination declines with age, but it varies by person and task:

• Simple motor tasks (e.g., finger tapping) → Minimal decline.

• Complex motor tasks (e.g., learning to drive a new car) → Greater decline.

• Physical activity & strength training slow aging declines & increase lifespan

• Many signs of aging (e.g., frailty) are often caused by age-related diseases (e.g., arthritis, heart disease), not aging itself.

Broadly summarize the life transitions in adulthood.

• Stabilization & change: some aspects stabilize, others change dramatically.

  • Major transitions: student to wage earner, serious relationships, becoming a parent.

• Life doesn’t follow a stereotype: e.g., single parents, same-sex couples, blended families.

  • Rise in one-person households

• Nontraditional students: older, with families/jobs.

• Careers: Young adults have anxiety about job certainty, and job satisfaction follows a U-shape (high early/late, low middle).

• Love/commitment: long-term relationships linked to physical and emotional health and happiness. Relationships require major life adjustments

• Marriage: declining rates, marrying later in life.

• Parenthood: biggest lifestyle shift; stressful yet rewarding; marital satisfaction drops after birth but recovers

  • Life satisfaction does not decline change is specific to marriage .

• Midlife transitions: first signs of physical aging, "sandwich generation" stress ( children and ageing parents), midlife crisis and empty nest are myths.

• Later adulthood: longer life expectancy, more centenarians, role change, and functional age often more telling than chronological age.