PSYO 2220 Midterm

psychopathology

the scientific study of psychological disorders. Understanding the science, nature, causes, and treatments of psychological disorders

evidence-based practice

contentious, explicit, and judicious use of the best available evidence to inform each stage of clinical decision-making and service delivery

factors affecting therapeutic effectiveness

therapeutic alliance, cohesion (group therapy), monitoring progress, goal consensus and collaboration, patient expectations and readiness for change

age of onset

average age people first experience symptoms of a disorder

acute onset

rapid onset of symptoms

insidious onset

slow, gradual increase of symptoms

course

a typical pattern a disorder tends to follow

chronic course

long term disorder

episodic course

disorder and symptoms fluctuate in duration and intensity

time-limited course

symptoms appear and then go away and do not come back

prevalence

% of people who have a specific disorder in a given time period

(ex: ¼ = 25% of the population have a disorder in a given year)

incidence

% of people who develop a specific disorder in a given time period

(ex: ¼ = 25% of the population have a disorder within the year)

etiology

the cause or set of causes for a disorder

paradigm

world views that underlie theories and methods of a scientific field. Changes with new knowledge and information

The asylum era

causes of mental illness are not yet defined, psychologists provided supportive care

John P Grey

specialized in biological causes and hospitalization

Dorthea Rex

specialized in moral therapy and the mental hygiene movement

Psychoanalysis era

mental health issues emerge when one can not resolve unconscious intra-psychic conflicts

Sigmund Freud

studied the structure of the mind, defines mechanisms, dream analysis

denial

refusal to acknowledge an aspect of reality

rationalization

concealing the truth from oneself using reassuring falsehoods

repression

blocking disturbing thoughts and experiences from memory

displacement

transferring feelings to a less threatening source

projection

falsely attributing one’s feelings to others

reaction formation

substitute a feeling with the opposite feeling

sublimation

channeling feelings into a socially acceptable form

Anna Freud

believed that abnormal behaviour develops from a deficient ego in regulating important functions (delaying and controlling impulses, defence against internal conflicts)

Carl Jung and Alfred Adler

Believed that if you remove barriers to internal and external growth, people will naturally flourish (self-actualization)

Erik Erikson

Researched development across the lifespan. Said that there are 8 stages related to psychopathology and abnormal behaviour

humanistic era

proposed that mental health issues emerge when difficult circumstances prevent full self-actualization

Abraham Maslow

researched hierarchy of needs and structure of personality

Carl Rogers

coined person centered therapy

behaviourism era

proposes that thoughts and emotions emerge from associative learning and reinforcement

John B Watson

researched classical conditioning and phobias

BF Skinner

researched operant conditioning

atypical behaviour

statistically rare and diverging from a person’s social and cultural norms

Dysfunction

the breakdown in functioning either cognitive, behavioural, or emotional

• challenges with emotional regulation

• decline in cognitive abilities

distress or impairment

subjective upsetness due to thoughts, behaviours, and emotions

• impairing ability to go to work or school

• avoidance can lead to relationship issues

one-dimensional models

attributes causes of behaviour to a single cause. Uses a linear approach

multi-dimensional models

attributes causes of behaviour to several causes. Used most often

brainstem

part of the brain that handles communication with the rest of the body. Controls essential functions like breathing, heart rate, and consciousness

medulla oblongata

part of the brain that controls breathing, heart rate, and autonomic functions

pons

part of the brain that carries sensory information, connects the cortex and cerebellum

midbrain

part of the brain that holds the reward system, produces dopamine in the ventral tegmental area

cerebellum

part of the brain that controls motor control and coordination

subcortical structures

located between the brain and cortex

hypothalamus

part of the brain that manages fleeing, fighting, feeding, and mating. Involved in hormone release and regulation

basal ganglia

part of the brain that plans and produces movement

amygdala

part of the brain for emotional processing, emotional memories

hippocampus

part of the brain for learning and memory

subcortical white matter

large tracts of neural wiring between regions of the cortex to other areas of the brain

corpus callosum

connects the cortex of the two hemispheres together to relay info back and forth

occipital lobe

part of the brain controlling vision and object identification

temporal lobe

part of the brain controlling hearing and memory

parietal lobe

part of the brain controlling the primary sensory cortex, touch, sense of space

frontal lobe

part of the brain controlling planning, organization, cognitive control, complex thought and actions, executive functioning

excitatory effect

increases the chance that the neurotransmitter it is acting on is going to send a response

glutamate

increases post-synaptic activity and has broad excitatory effects

Gaba

decreases post-synaptic activity and inhibits various emotions

serotonin

regulates behaviours, moods, and thought processes. Low levels are associated with impulsivity, decreased inhibition, and aggression

dopamine

associated with exploratory, pleasure-seeking behaviours, and anticipation of rewards. Switches on other brain circuits yielding general effects

norepinephrine

emergency response (fight/flight)

acts as a neurotransmitter in the CNS and a hormone in the endocrine system

genes

long molecules of DNA at various locations on chromosomes inside the nucleus. Genes influence bodies and behaviours, environmental factors determine which genes are turned on

heritability estimates

proportion of variance in a trait that is due to variation in genes

Diathesis-stress model

argues that mental health illnesses result from a combination of predisposing vulnerabilities and life events

diathesis

risk factors that are often genetic and make someone more vulnerable to a disorder

stress

environmental stressors or experiences that may trigger the disorder when an underlying vulnerability is present

genetic vulnerabilities

general genetic risk factors

prior trauma

can either be isolated or ongoing

• ex: early trauma affects the genes that regulate the HPA axis and causes one to be more relative to subsequent stressors

the gene-environment correlation model

notes that we shape the environments around us but specific inherited characteristics could increase the likelihood of experiencing certain stressors

• ex: a predisposition for thrill-seeking —> stimulation from alcohol —> increased risk of substance use disorder

classical conditioning

changes behaviours via paired associations with previously paired stimuli

prepared learning

certain cues are more likely to be associated with certain outcomes (ex: if you became sick after going out for supper, you would think that the food was related to the sickness)

operant learning

changing behaviours is based on the response to the behaviour (either negative or positive reinforcement/punshiment)

decreasing undesired behaviours using operant learning

• negative punishment: remove a positive stimulus

• positive punishment: add in a negative stimulus

increasing desired behaviours using operant learning

• negative reinforcement: remove a negative stimulus

• positive reinforcement: add a positive stimulus

social learning

learning behaviours by modelling others. Must…

• pay attention to the model

• memorize what was learned

• be able to reproduce the model’s behaviour

• have motivation to model what was learned

learned helplessness

when faced with uncontrollable stressors, this may be developed with motivations to either act or avoid

internal attributions

individual attributes negative life events to personal failures (ex: it is all my fault)

stable attributions

attribution remains even after the negative event has passed (ex: all future things will be my fault")

global attributions

attributions extend across many issues

emotions

subjective, short-lived, temporary feelings in response to an external event

mood

a pervasive lasting period of emotionality

affect

the momentary emotional tone of what you are sating and doing (how your emotions affect your behaviours)

emotional reactivity

individual differences in threshold and intensity of emotional experiences

emotional regulation

enhancing, maintaining, and inhibiting emotional arousal

sociocultural models

recognize that psychopathology is best understood with reference to the social and cultural forces that influence an individual (ex: race, SES, sexuality, social support, education, etc)

culture

a shared web of processes that operate at an individual and social level

cultural processes

• environmental and biological

• connected to race and ethnicity

• develop over time

• intertwined with multiple domains of functioning

• decisive role in the development of adaptation and maladaptation

social level of culture

• a system of integrated processes

• socially transmitted and constructed competencies, ideas, scripts, symbols, values, etc

• a dynamic system that is constantly reinvented and negotiated

individual level of culture

• creating a cultural self/identity through interactions

• has multiple functional domains (cognitive, biological, behavioural, social, emotional)

cultural identity

definition of self/identity that emerges from social interactions. Changes from cultural development

prevalence dimension

• disproportionate exposure to stressful live events (accumulated stress burden)

• systemic barriers and discrimination

• acculturative stress among immigrants

etiology dimension

• cultural factors that affect the presence and presentation of illness

• most assessments are western based

symptoms dimension

• cultural differences in how symptoms are expressed

• different meanings are attached to symptoms across cultures

assessment dimension

• try to avoid using culturally specific assessments

• interpret results with a culturally competent view

• establish whether behaviours are culturally/situationally normative

coping dimension

• cultural differences in seeking help and stigma

• different views of showing distress

• where one should seek care (ex: doctor, psychologist, spiritual leader)

treatment dimension

• care depends on whom the patient seeks help from

• patient has increased stress burden —> increased symptom severity —> decreased responsiveness to treatment

developmental stage may influence

• what is considered normal/abnormal

• coping abilities

• how disorders are expressed over time

• treatment responsiveness

Non-normative developmental experiences

these can play a role in one’s development across the lifespan

equifinality

states that different paths may lead to the same outcome