a sequence of DNA that tells a cell how to assemble amino acids into a particular protein
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Fredrich Miescher
isolated nuclein in white blood cell nuclei
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Fredrick Griffith
Transferred killing ability between types of bacteria
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Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, Maclyn McCarthy
Discovered that DNA transmits killing ability in bacteria
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Alfred Hersey, Martha Chase
determined that the part of a virus that infects & replicates is its nucleic acid & not its protein
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Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, Maurice Wilkins, & Rosalind Franklin
discovered DNA components, proportions, & positions
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James Watson & Francis Crick
explain DNA's three-dimensional structure
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James Watson
Had his genome sequenced
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Protein
imparts phenotypes
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nucleotide
- deoxyribose sugar - phosphate group - nitrogen base
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A & G purines
2 ring structure
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T & C pyrimidines
single ring structure
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DNA structure has a sugar-phosphate back bone with
nitrogen bases in between
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in a DNA structure, 2 chains of nucleotides align
head to toe
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antiparallel
5' to 3'; direction in which complement strand grows
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DNA structure forms a
double helix
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base pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds
A & T: 2 H+ bonds G & C: 3 H+ bonds
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DNA structure twists to fit in
the nucleus
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histones
proteins that DNA wraps around
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nucleosome
DNA wrap around 8 histones
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linker region
strand of DNA that tighten nucleosome together
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linker regions help to
open parts of DNA at a time for protein synthesis
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Chromatin
DNA, histones, DNA scaffold, & proteins to bind DNA & RNA
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Chromatid
unreplicated chromosome
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chromosome
made up of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
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DNA unwinds, separates, exposing
unpaired bases that attract free floating nucleotides
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new double helix has _ of original DNA
1/2
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Matthew Meselson & Franklin Stahl
Showed that DNA replication is semi-conservative
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steps of DNA replication occurs in phase _ of cell cycle
s
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steps of DNA replication
1. replication fork 2. helicase 3. primase 4. DNA polymerase
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replication fork
site where DNA locally opens to pair up
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helicase
enzyme that breaks H+ bonds between base pairs
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primase
attracts complementary RNA nucleotides to build a short piece of RNA primer at the beginning of DNA
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DNA polymerase
main replication enzyme that 1. removes RNA primer once the strand is started 2. replaces with correct DNA nucleotides 3. nucleotides come from nutrients in our diet
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why do we need RNA in DNA replication?
DNA polymerase needs a started strand to add nucleotides
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ligase
enzyme that seals the sugar-phosphate backbones
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Okazaki fragments
about 150 nucleotides long on discontinuous piece of DNA
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helicase at the replication fork
helps to open the DNA to identify where DNA replication should start
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.
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DNA replication is conducted
outside cells
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DNA amplification uses DNA polymerase to
replicate a specific DNA sequence in a test tube
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polymerase chain reaction (PCR) requirements
1. 2 primers 2. complements to target sequence 3. many copies of 4 types of DNA nucleotides
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why is it necessary for the DNA polymerase to be from a bacteria that lives in hot springs?
to withstand heat to force DNA replication
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PCR steps
1. Denaturation 2. Annealing 3. Extension
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Denaturation
loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor
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Annealing
Binding of primers
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Extension (PCR)
produces new DNA fragments in which the reaction mixture is heated to the optimal temperature for DNA polymerase, and each primer is elongated by means of deoxynucleotide triphosphates
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PCR results
- identical DNA pieces accumulate at a rate of 2^n - after 30 cycles of PCR yields more than 10 billion copies of target DNA sequence
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n = number of
temperature cycles
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why is it important to have so much replicated DNA?
cells must replicate their DNA before they can divide. this ensures each daughter cell gets a copy of the genome & therefore successful in inheritance of genetic traits
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Fredrick Sanger
Determined amino acid sequence of proteins.
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sanger sequencing generates
a series of DNA fragments of identical sequence that are complementary to the DNA sequence of interest; fragments differ in length by 1 end base
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one technology other than PCR that uses Sanger sequencing
CRISPR genome editing technique in complex organisms
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chain termination
the release of a newly formed protein from the ribosome; also halts DNA replication
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if a DNA molecule contains 20% adenine, what percentage of guanine is present?
30% - because in total they have to equal 100
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the 2 strands in a DNA molecule are
antiparallel and complementary
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purines are bases with a two-ring structure
adenine & guanine
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labels of 5' & 3' refer to
numbered carbons on the sugar
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the method of DNA replication is now known to be
semiconservative
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the enzyme that attracts complementary RNA nucleotides to build an RNA primer at the start of replication
primase
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the enzyme that serves to seal the sugar-phosphate backbone after replication
ligase
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replication proceeds in a
5' to 3' direction
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okazaki fragments form on the
lagging strand
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if the sequence of one strand of DNA is 5' ATGGCAT 3', the sequence of the complementary strand is
3' TACCGTA 5'
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DNA in the nucleus winds around proteins called
histones
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antiparallelism means
the 2 strands of a DNA molecule run in opposite directions
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in DNA replication,
the parental DNA splits & free nucleotides bond to their complements, building 2 DNA molecules from 1
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because DNA strands are antiparallel, replication proceeds
continuously on one strand, & discontinuously on the other
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Helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks (unzipper)
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leading strand
The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.
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lagging strand
A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 3' to 5' direction away from the replication fork.
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Primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
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RNA nucleotides
adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil
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DNA structure
- double-stranded - thymine as base - deoxyribose as sugar
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RNA structure
- single-stranded - uracil as base - ribose as sugar
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3 types of RNA
messenger, transfer, ribosomal
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transcription
takes a copy of the dna out to the ribosome to make a protein
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translation
making protein from RNA
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Archibald Garrod
first to link inherited disease between protein & genetic material
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Pheobus Levene
discovered structure of DNA & found difference between DNA & RNA
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Erwin Chargaff
discovered that A=T and G=C
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backbone of DNA structure
sugar and phosphate
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DNA structure ladder
nitrogen bases (A-T; G-C)
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semiconservative
DNA structure
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how does DNA fit into the nucleus?
it twists
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bonds involved in DNA
Hydrogen bonds that hold nitrogen bases together
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A & T have how many nitrogen bonds?
2
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G & C have how many nitrogen bonds
3
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Chargaff's rule
Equal number of adenine and thymine and equal number of guanine and cytosine
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pyrimidines
thymine & cytosine; single-ring structure
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purines
adenine & guanine; double-ringed structure
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what to pyrimidines & purines do together?
they bond together which is why the double helix has the same width
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deoxyribose carbon structure
the phosphate group attaches to the 5' carbon on the sugar; 5' carbon attaches to the sugar
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what does the deoxyribose sugar contain?
5 carbon 4 oxygen 10 hydrogen
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semiconservative model
means the newly replicated strand of DNA is made up of one original strand & one new strand