Psychology Stuffs

True Experiment

The Researcher manipulates the IV so it is possible to randomly allocate participants to a condition.

Field Experiment

A type of true experiment that takes place participants' natural environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

Lab Experiment

A type of true experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV. A highly standardised procedure is used

Quasi Experiment

An experimental method where the assignment of participants to an experimental group or to a control group cannot be made at random for either practical or ethical reasons. The IV is often a pre-existing characteristic that the participant possesses

Natural Experiment

An experimental method where the IV is environmental in nature and outside of the control of the researcher. These often work on a pre-test, post-test design - that is, the behavior is measured both before and after the environmental IV was introduced

Qualitative data

Descriptive data in the form of text/pictures. It is often more time consuming difficult to analyze but provides rich detail

Quantitative data

Closed data in the form of numbers. Often quick and easy to analyze though may provide limited understanding

Operationalizing Variables

The process of clearly defining the variables in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV)

Independent Variables

The variable[s] that the experimenter manipulates (changes)

Dependent Variable

The variable[s] that is measured by the experimenter

One tailed hypothesis

A prediction that states the direction of the difference or relationship between two variables (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls).

Two Tailed hypothesis

A prediction that suggests the IV will impact the DV but does not state the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness).

Independent Measures Design

An experimental design where participants are allocated to one condition

Repeated Measures Design

An experimental design where the participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

Matched Pairs Design

An experimental design where participants are grouped together into pairs based on some variable they share such as age and gender. 1 member of the pair is randomly assigned to one condition and the other is automatically assigned to the other condition

Counterbalancing

A control for order effects that is often used in repeated measures designs. It involves randomizing the order in which participants experience conditions of an experiment (e.g. half participants do condition A the B, and the other half of participants do condition B then A).

Target Population

The whole group that the researchers are interested in and wants to generalize their findings to

Sample

The group of people that are selected from the target population to take part in a study

Sampling Bias

Refers to errors that can occur in research studies by not properly selecting participants for the study which results in a sample that does not reflect the target population

Extraneous Variables

Any variable that you're not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research study

Null hypothesis

A statement that the IV will have no significant effect on the DV and that any variation in observed data is the result of chance

Opportunity Sampling

Gathering a sample by finding participants who happen to be available at a convenient time or who are easily at hand. This may involve the use of a pre-existing group that are already assembled

Random Sampling

A probabilistic sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling technique that attempts to make a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a target population. Divides the population into smaller groups, or strata, based on shared characteristics. A random sample is taken from each stratum compared with the population

Volunteer Sampling

Sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement

Purposive Sampling

Sampling technique where the participants are selected based on very specific characteristics that are relevant to the topic. May involve the use of self-selected or snowball sampling to obtain a sample that matches the criteria of the study

Snowball Sampling

Sampling technique where existing participants who are already in the study ("seeds") help the researcher to recruit more participants through their social networks. The newly recruited participants are then asked to refer others and so on until a sufficient number of participants is obtained. Researchers generally use snowball sampling if the target population of interest is hard to identify or rare.

Systematic Sampling

Sampling technique that uses a predetermined system to select the participants from the target population (e.g. every fourth person in a list could be used in the sample).

Representative Sample

A group of participants that adequately reflects the characteristics of the target population as a whole

Case Study

In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered from a variety of sources and often by using several different research methods

Semi-structured interview

Type of interview that has a guide of topics for the interviewer to cover but the wording, order and depth of questions are flexible

Unstructured interview

Type of interview where there are no fixed questions or specific topics just general aims- it is more like a conversation

Focus group interview

Type of interview conducted with groups of around 6-10 people at the same time. A facilitator guides the process and participants interact with each other

Structured interview

Type of interview where the questions, their exact wording and their order are fixed and determined in advance

Covert observation

Observation where participants do not know their behavior is being observed

Overt observation

Observation where participants are aware that they are being observed

Participant observation

Type of observation where the researcher directly interacts with the participants and takes part in the activity they are observing

Non-participant observation

Type of observation where the researcher passively watches the group and does not participate in any activities themselves

Correlational research

A mathematical technique where the researcher measures two variables and quantifies the relationship between them. A cause and effect relationship cannot be established as no IV is manipulated

Pilot Study

A small scale "practice" study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn't then amendments can be made before the actual study

Questionnaire

A set of written questions that participants complete themselves. May include open or closed questions

Naturalistic Observation

An observation study conducted in the environment where the behavior would normally occur

Meta-analysis

A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of a number of studies that have been conducted by other researchers to examine overall trends

Triangulation

Combining different approaches to collecting or interpreting data to increase the credibility and validity of the findings

Method Triangulation

The use of multiple research methods to study a situation or phenomenon. The intention is to decrease the deficiencies and biases that come from any single method. In other words, the strength of one method may compensate for the weakness of another.

Researcher Triangulation

The use of more than one researcher or data analyst in a study. The ability to confirm findings across investigators without prior discussion or collaboration between them can significantly enhance the credibility of the findings

Data Triangulation

The use of multiple data sources in a single study e.g. investigating two different points in time

Experimental Condition

The group that received the experimental treatment

Experimental Design

The way that participants are allocated to conditions in a field or lab experiment

Order Effects

When the order in which participants experience conditions in a repeated measures design has an effect on the results

Practice Effect

When a participant performs differently in the second condition they are exposed to because they have had the chance to practice a task in the first condition

Fatigue/Boredom

When and participant performs differently in the second condition they are exposed to because they have become bored or tired

Consent Deception Confidentiality Debrief Withdrawal Protection

Ethical Guidelines (CDCDWP)

Sampling technique

The method used to gather the sample from the target population

Single Blind Control

A control where the researchers do not tell the participants if they are being given the experimental or control treatment. Controls for participant bias/placebo effect

Double Blind Control

A control where neither the researcher nor the participants know which condition of the experiment the participants have been allocated to. Controls for researcher and participants bias.

Demand characteristics

Occurs when participants guess the aim/hypothesis of the study and alter their behavior (intentionally or unintentionally). There are different ways that participants might change their behavior in a number of different ways

Expectancy Effect

The participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypothesis with a goal of "helping" the researcher. This may result in acting in a certain way or giving the "right answer".

Social Desirability Bias

Participants' behavior is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light. This is when the participant answers in a way that makes him/her look good to the researcher. This is done to avoid embarrassment or judgement

Screw You Effect

The participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses, but in order to destroy credibility of the study

Participant Bias

Participant factors that can influence the outcome of the research e.g. participants ideas of what happens in the research, how they should behave or what they expect to gain from participation in research

Researcher Bias

Errors in a research study due to the expectations or beliefs of the experimenter. May occur deliberately or unintentionally

Acquiescence Bias

The tendency of participants to give positive answers to whatever questions they are asked (Only relevant to Interviews)

Dominant Respondent Bias

Occurs when one of the participants influences the behavior and responses of other participants. (Only relevant to Focus Groups)

Leading Question Bias

Occurs when questions in an interview are worded in a way to encourage a certain answer

Question Order Bias

Occurs when responses to one question influence the participant's responses to the following questions.

Confirmation Bias

Occurs when the researcher has a prior belief and uses the research to confirm this belief

Biased Reporting

Occurss when some findings of the study are not equally represented in the research report

Validity

Refers to whether a measure actually measures what it claims to be measuring.

Ecological Validity

Whether the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting. Lab experiments often have low ecological validity

Internal Validity

Whether results obtained were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than any other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics

Construct Validity

The extent to which a measure successfully measures the concept it is supposed to (e.g. does a questionnaire really measure depression?)

Memory

The cognitive process of processing, storing and retrieving information

Declarative Memory

This is the memory of facts and events, must be recalled consciously

Episodic Memory

This is the memory of certain event that have occured, component of Declarative Memory

Semantic Memory

This is the memory of general knowledge and facts, component of Declarative Memory

Non-Declarative Memory

This is the type of memory that gets unconsciously recalled

Procedural Memory

The unconscious memory of skills and how to do things

Generalizability, Reliability, Applicability, Validity, Ethics

Evaluation tool to access studies (GRAVE)

Anterograde Amnesia

Type of amnesia where you are unable to form new memories

Retrograde Amnesia

Type of amnesia where you lose all pre-existing memories

Longitudinal Study

Observes results over a long period of time

The Case Study of HM - Milner 1966

Aim: To better understand the effects that the surgery had on patient HM

Peterson and Peterson 1959

Aim: to investigate the length of time that short term memory will hold information when the information is not rehearsed

Quinn and McConnel 1996

Aim: To investigate the effect of concurrent information that uses the same working memory model component on recall when the mind has to complete two tasks simultaneously

Shallice and Warrington 1970

Aim: To examine how KF's memory was affected

Schema Theory

Describes how knowledge is organized and stored in memory so it can be accessed and used when needed

Object Schema

This helps us understand and interpret inanimate objects, an example is how you can remember how to use a door despite never using that exact door before

Event Schema

A sequence of actions that somebody will expect to happen, an example is when thinking about going to a movie, you imagine going to the theater, buying a ticket, getting concessions, watching the movie, then leaving the theater and going home

Stereotypes

These are generalizations made about a certain group of people, based off of past experiences with similar people

Accommodation

When your schema restructures to be able to support new information

Assimilation

Adding new information to your schema as you experience more things

Repeated Reproduction

Participants hear a story and are told to recall that story after a long allocated period of time

Serial Reproduction

Participants will read a story and then recall what they remember to another person, who will repeat it to another person, and so forth

Bransford and Johnson 1972

Aim: To investigate how cognitive schemas influence recall and comprehension of a passage

Bartlett 1932

Aim: To investigate how memory/cultural background of a story is affected by previous knowledge

System 1

Automatic, intuitive and effortless way of thinking

System 2

Slower, Conscious and Rational way of thinking

Alter et al 2007

Aim: To investigate if in system 2 a task is more difficult to process, and if the use of system 2 reduces the errors

Gilead et al 2013

Aim: To investigate if different parts of the brain are active during tasks that require abstract or concrete thinking