ap psych units 6-9 test

punishment

punishment

a consequence that reduces or aims to reduce a targeted and undesirable behavior in an individual (part of the operant conditioning theory)

mirror neurons

a type of brain cell that respond equally when we perform an action and when we witness someone else perform the same action

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

children who observed an adult being aggressive with an inflatable toy were more likely to show aggressive behaviors later on, compared to those who did not observe aggressive behavior

Law of Effect

the idea that responses that lead to positive effects are repeated, while responses that lead to negative effects are not repeated

discrimination (classical conditioning)

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli

taste aversion

tendency an organism learns after an experience to avoid food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness

spontaneous recovery

the comeback of a conditioned response after extinction when the unconditioned stimulus is presented again

behavioral psychology

the study of observable behavior and its explanation by principals of learning

fixed/variable ratio

fixed: you know how many times you have to do the behavior for the reward

variable: you don’t know how many times you have to do the behavior for the reward

fixed/variable interval

fixed: you know how much time will pass before getting the reward

variable: you don’t know how much time will pass before getting the reward

short term memory

generally include quick observations, and are only stored for 10-30 seconds (can remember 7±2 things at once)

implicit/explicit memory

implicit: memory of procedures (non-declarative and automatic)

explicit: memory of facts and knowledge (declarative and effortful)

semantic encoding

the processing of information into memory according to its meaning

amygdala

the "panic button" of the brain since it is heavily used for emotional processing, particularly aggression and fear

massed/distributed practice

massed: time spent learning is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (aka cramming)

distributed: practice (or study) sessions are spaced out across a period of time (ex. self testing)

cerebellum

plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

retention for memory of novel information fades quickly and then levels out

framing effect

the biasing effects on decision making of the way in which a choice is worded, or "framed"

proactive/retroactive interference

proactive: old info blocks new info

retroactive: new info blocks old info

(P. O. R. N)

phoneme

the smallest distinctive sound unit

Sternberg’s Components of Creativity

1. expertise

2. imaginative thinking skills

3. venturesome personality

4. intrinsic motivation

5. creative environment

linguistic determinism

the concept that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception (i.e- language determines the way you think)

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. sensorimotor stage (0-2 yrs): world is in terms of sensory impressions and motor activities (no object permanence

2. preoperational stage (2-6/7 yrs): child learns to use language but doesn’t comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic (conservation, egocentrism, theory of mind)

3. concrete operational stage (7-11 yrs): children are able to do operations and think logically about concrete events

4. formal operational stage (12 yrs-adulthood): can think logically about abstract concepts

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce normal development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

1. preconventional morality (before age 9): obey rules to avoid punishment or gain reward

2. conventional morality (early adolescence): uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

3. postconventional morality (adolescence and beyond): actions reflect one’s own beliefs and morals

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

zygote/embryo/fetus

zygote: fertilized egg (first 2 weeks)

embryo: developing human organism (2 weeks through 2nd month)

fetus: developing human organism (9 weeks until birth)

cross sectional/longitudinal study

cross sectional: a research design conducted at a single point in time, comparing groups of differing ages to arrive at conclusions about development

longitudinal study: a research design that examines how individuals develop by studying the same sample over a long period of time

mental age

the age at which a person functions intellectually

Spearman’s (g) Factor

refers to a person's general intelligence that can be reflected in an IQ score

achievement test

tests designed to assess current performance in an ability

standardization

when a test is made uniform or set to adhere to a specific standard (reflective of a person’s status compared to the average of all scores)

normal curve

theoretical bell-shaped curve for which the area under the curve lying between any two z-scores has been predetermined

reliability

a measure of consistency in test results

validity

a measure of the extent to which a test actually assesses what it claims

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental representation of an object or concept

insight

a cognitive form of learning involving the mental rearrangement or restructuring of the elements in a problem to achieve a sudden understanding of the problem and arrive at a solution

mental set

an obstacle to problem solving which involves fixating only on solutions that have worked in the past

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

availability heuristic

the ability to easily recall immediate examples from the mind about something

morpheme

the smallest unit of sound that carries a meaning

syntax

the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences

stages of speech

1. babbling stage (ex. goo goo gah gah)

2. one-word stage (ex. milk)

3. two word stage (ex. want milk)

4. telegraphic speech (ex. Jane want milk

Noam Chomsky

theory of language development suggests that children possess the inherent ability to acquire language

homeostasis

a dynamic state of equilibrium maintained by fulfilling drives and regulating internal conditions such as body temperature and blood pressure

Arousal Theory of Motivation

a theory stating that individuals are motivated to perform behaviors in order to maintain an optimal arousal level, typically a moderate level

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

a theory that classifies needs into five categories, ranked by priority from lowest to highest: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization

motivation

processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior

intrinsic/extrinsic motivation

intrinsic: motivation driven by internal factors such as enjoyment and satisfaction

extrinsic: motivation driven by an external reward or punishment

emotion

a 4 part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation, subjective feelings, and behavioral expression

James Lange Theory of Emotion

emotions reflect physiological states in the body (physical sensation first and then emotion)

Two Factor Theory of Emotion

focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal (arousal, reason for arousal, emotion)