Definition: The Latin-speaking half of the Roman Empire, centered in Rome. Flashcard #2 Term: Eastern Roman Empire Definition: The Greek-speaking half of the Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, centered in Constantinople. Flashcard #3 Term: Catacombs Definition: Underground burial chambers where early Christians worshipped privately due to persecution. Flashcard #4 Term: Appropriation Definition: Using existing imagery or symbols in a new context, a common practice in early Christianity. Flashcard #5 Term: Orant figure Definition: A standing figure with arms raised in prayer, derived from Roman gestures of duty. Flashcard #6 Term: Ichthys (fish) Definition: A Christian symbol for Jesus Christ, Son of God. Flashcard #7 Term: Good Shepherd Definition: A depiction of Jesus as a caring, protective, and pastoral caretaker, adapted from Roman pastoral scenes. Flashcard #8 Term: Cubicula Definition: Mortuary chapels or rooms within catacombs used for small services. Flashcard #9 Term: Loculi Definition: Shelves carved into catacomb walls for individual burials. Flashcard #10 Term: Wet plaster fresco (fresco buon) Definition: A painting technique where pigment is applied to wet plaster. Flashcard #11 Term: Domus (community house) Definition: Private homes converted for use as early Christian worship spaces. Flashcard #12 Term: Familia Definition: A Roman core value emphasizing family loyalty. Flashcard #13 Term: Pietas Definition: A Roman core value emphasizing duty to the state and gods. Flashcard #14 Term: Contra-posto Definition: A naturalistic standing pose used in Roman art, where the body's weight is shifted to one leg. Flashcard #15 Term: Prefiguration Definition: An Old Testament story or figure that foreshadows a New Testament event or figure. Flashcard #16 Term: Constantine Definition: Roman Emperor (reigned 312–337 CE) who legalized Christianity and initiated widespread Christian architectural patronage. Flashcard #17 Term: Old St. Peter’s Basilica Definition: An early Christian basilica built in Rome under Constantine over St. Peter’s tomb, serving as a pilgrimage site. Flashcard #18 Term: Basilican/Cross Plan Definition: A Western church architectural plan characterized by a long nave, side aisles, transept forming a cross, and an apse. Flashcard #19 Term: Santa Sabina Definition: A smaller, well-preserved example of a Western early Christian basilica in Rome. Flashcard #20 Term: Santa Costanza Definition: Originally a royal mausoleum, later converted into a central-plan church, circular with a dome and ambulatory, showing Eastern influence in the West. Flashcard #21 Term: Atrium (Old St. Peter's) Definition: The open courtyard leading into the narthex of Old St. Peter’s Basilica. Flashcard #22 Term: Narthex (Old St. Peter's) Definition: The entrance hall or porch leading to the nave of Old St. Peter’s Basilica. Flashcard #23 Term: Nave (Old St. Peter's) Definition: The central, main aisle of Old St. Peter's Basilica, accommodating the congregation. Flashcard #24 Term: Transept (Old St. Peter's) Definition: The arm of the church that projects at right angles to the nave, forming the 'cross' in a cruciform plan, providing space for clergy. Flashcard #25 Term: Apse (Old St. Peter's) Definition: A semicircular recession at the eastern end of the church, containing the altar. Flashcard #26 Term: Justinian I Definition: Byzantine Emperor (527–565 CE) who expanded the empire, promoted Christianity, and commissioned major churches like Hagia Sophia and San Vitale. Flashcard #27 Term: Trinity Definition: The Christian concept of God as Father, Son (Jesus), and Holy Spirit. Flashcard #28 Term: Nimubs Definition: A halo around the head of a holy figure in art. Flashcard #29 Term: Mandorla Definition: An almond-shaped aura surrounding the full-body depiction of Christ or other sacred figures, signifying divinity. Flashcard #30 Term: Icon Definition: A religious image, often painted on wood, used in devotion, particularly in Eastern Christianity. Flashcard #31 Term: Iconoclasm Definition: The deliberate destruction of religious images, notably during the Byzantine controversy of 726+ CE. Flashcard #32 Term: Dematerialization (Byzantine art) Definition: An artistic and architectural goal in Byzantine art to create a divine space that transcends material reality, often achieved with light and shimmering mosaics. Flashcard #33 Term: Tesserae Definition: Small pieces of glass, stone, or other material used to create a mosaic. Flashcard #34 Term: Hagia Sophia Definition: Meaning 'Holy Wisdom,' a monumental Byzantine church in Istanbul built by Justinian (532–537 CE), known for synthesizing basilican and central plans with its massive dome. Flashcard #35 Term: Pendentives Definition: Spherical triangular sections that transfer the weight of a circular dome to four piers or columns, allowing for a large, open space below. Flashcard #36 Term: San Vitale Definition: An octagonal, central-plan Byzantine church in Ravenna, famous for its lavish mosaics depicting Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora. Flashcard #37 Term: Muhammad Definition: The prophet of Islam (571–632 CE) who received revelations from Allah, forming the basis of the Qur’an. Flashcard #38 Term: Qur’an Definition: The holy book of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God (Allah) revealed to Muhammad. Flashcard #39 Term: Calligraphy (Islam) Definition: The art of beautiful writing, highly esteemed in Islamic culture as a manifestation of Allah's word. Flashcard #40 Term: Five Pillars of Islam Definition: The fundamental practices of Islam: Shahada (faith), Salah (prayer), Sawm (fasting), Zakat (charity), Hajj (pilgrimage). Flashcard #41 Term: Geometric abstraction (Islamic art) Definition: Complex patterns based on numbers and mathematics, developed in Islamic art due to the general avoidance of sentient figural imagery in religious contexts. Flashcard #42 Term: Tessellation Definition: The repeating of geometric units to form an intricate pattern without gaps or overlaps, common in Islamic art to suggest eternity. Flashcard #43 Term: Symmetry (Islamic art) Definition: The use of balanced proportions (e.g., fourfold, fivefold, sixfold) in geometric patterns to create visual harmony. Flashcard #44 Term: Masjid Definition: An Arabic term meaning 'place of prostration,' referring to a mosque. Flashcard #45 Term: Minaret Definition: A tall, slender tower, typically part of a mosque, from which the call to prayer (adhan) is issued. Flashcard #46 Term: Qibla wall Definition: The wall in a mosque that faces the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca, which Muslims face during prayer. Flashcard #47 Term: Mihrab Definition: A niche or recess in the qibla wall of a mosque, indicating the direction of prayer. Flashcard #48 Term: Dome of the Rock Definition: Built 687–692 CE in Jerusalem, it is one of the earliest major Islamic monuments, an octagonal central-plan building sacred to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Flashcard #49 Term: Horror vacui (Islamic art) Definition: A design principle characterized by the filling of an entire surface with details and decoration, often seen in the Dome of the Rock's exterior. Flashcard #50 Term: Great Mosque of Córdoba Definition: A significant example of Islamic architecture in Spain, featuring a massive hypostyle prayer hall with reused Roman columns and a distinctive double-arched system. Flashcard #51 Term: Siddhartha Gautama Definition: The historical Buddha (5th century BCE) who founded Buddhism after renouncing luxury to seek an end to human suffering. Flashcard #52 Term: Four Noble Truths Definition: The core teachings of Buddhism: 1. Life is suffering. 2. Suffering is caused by desire and ignorance. 3. Ending desire ends suffering. 4. The way to end suffering is to follow the Eightfold Path. Flashcard #53 Term: Eightfold Path Definition: The Buddhist path to liberation from suffering, comprising right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Flashcard #54 Term: Stupa Definition: A hemispherical mound or reliquary housing Buddha's relics, symbolizing the cosmos (mandala), used as a pilgrimage site for circumambulation. Flashcard #55 Term: Circumambulation Definition: The ritual act of walking around a sacred object, such as a stupa or shrine, in a clockwise direction as a form of devotion. Flashcard #56 Term: Toranas Definition: Elaborately carved gateways at the entrances to a stupa, decorated with narrative scenes and symbolic representations of the Buddha. Flashcard #57 Term: Yakshi Figures Definition: Female nature spirits associated with fertility, abundance, and life force, often shown in a sensuous tribhanga pose at stupa gateways. Flashcard #58 Term: Tribhanga pose Definition: A triple-bent pose (at the neck, waist, and knee) often used in ancient Indian sculpture, especially for female figures like Yakshi. Flashcard #59 Term: Chaitya Halls Definition: Rock-cut sanctuaries and congregation halls in Buddhist cave architecture, often containing stupa replicas, used for worship and by monks during monsoons. Flashcard #60 Term: Mudras Definition: Symbolic hand gestures of the Buddha that convey specific meanings or states of mind in Buddhist iconography. Flashcard #61 Term: Mandala (Tibetan Buddhism) Definition: A diagram of the universe, often intricately designed, used as a tool for meditation and ritual in Tibetan Buddhism. Flashcard #62 Term: Ottonian Period Definition: A period in European art and architecture from c. 950–1050 CE, primarily in present-day Germany, marked by a continuation of Carolingian ideals and increased church building. Flashcard #63 Term: St. Michael’s, Hildesheim Definition: A key Ottonian basilica plan church known for its double transept, strong symmetry, and wooden roof which posed a fire risk. Flashcard #64 Term: Codex Definition: The modern book form, consisting of folded and bound pages, which replaced scrolls by the 5th–6th century CE and allowed for easier navigation of texts. Flashcard #65 Term: Migration Period Definition: A period in Western Europe (c. 500–700 CE), formerly called the 'Dark Ages,' characterized by political decentralization, nomadic societies, and art primarily consisting of small, portable luxury objects. Flashcard #66 Term: Zoomorphic motifs Definition: Stylized animal forms and designs, common in the metalwork and art of the Migration Period. Flashcard #67 Term: Cloisonné technique Definition: An enameling technique where colored glass, enamel, or gemstones are separated by thin metal strips (cloisons) on a metal backing, seen in Migration Period jewelry. Flashcard #68 Term: Monasteries (Early Middle Ages) Definition: Centers of learning, economic activity, and safe havens during the instability of the Early Middle Ages. Flashcard #69 Term: Illuminated Manuscripts Definition: Hand-copied books, often religious texts, adorned with intricate decorations, illustrations, and ornamental initials by monks in scriptoria. Flashcard #70 Term: Vellum Definition: A fine parchment made from calf or sheep skin, commonly used as pages for illuminated manuscripts. Flashcard #71 Term: Carpet pages Definition: Purely decorative pages in illuminated manuscripts, often resembling textiles, used for meditation before reading the text (e.g., Lindisfarne Gospels). Flashcard #72 Term: Romanesque Period Definition: An architectural and artistic style (c. 1050–1200 CE) meaning 'Roman-like,' characterized by a revival of large-scale stone construction, round arches, and barrel/groin vaults. Flashcard #73 Term: Crusades Definition: A series of religious wars (1096–1204 CE) promoted by Pope Urban II, which led to increased East-West interaction and the recovery of ancient Roman knowledge in Western Europe. Flashcard #74 Term: Pilgrimage (Romanesque) Definition: An act of devotion, healing, or penance involving travel to sacred sites like Santiago de Compostela, a driving force behind Romanesque church construction. Flashcard #75 Term: Relics Definition: Body parts, clothing, or other objects associated with saints, believed to possess healing or miraculous powers, central to Romanesque pilgrimage. Flashcard #76 Term: Reliquaries Definition: Elaborately crafted containers, often made of precious materials, designed to house and display relics. Flashcard #77 Term: Church of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse Definition: An important Romanesque pilgrimage church (c. 1070–1120) known for its early stone vaulting and plan designed to accommodate large numbers of pilgrims. Flashcard #78 Term: Crossing square Definition: The square space at the intersection of the nave and transept in a Romanesque church, which often served as the basic geometric unit for the church's proportions. Flashcard #79 Term: Ambulatory (Romanesque) Definition: A walkway or aisle around the apse and altar of a Romanesque church, allowing pilgrims to circulate and visit radiating chapels without disturbing services. Flashcard #80 Term: Radiating chapels Definition: Small chapels projecting outward from the ambulatory of a Romanesque church, designed to house relics. Flashcard #81 Term: Chevet (Romanesque) Definition: The extended eastern end of a Romanesque church, comprising the apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. Flashcard #82 Term: Barrel-vaulted nave Definition: A long, continuous semicircular vaulted ceiling over the nave, characteristic of many Romanesque churches. Flashcard #83 Term: Transverse arches Definition: Arches that span the nave at regular intervals, reinforcing the barrel vaulting and dividing the nave into bays. Flashcard #84 Term: Massive stone piers Definition: Large, solid columns or supports used in Romanesque architecture to bear the heavy weight of stone vaults. Flashcard #85 Term: Nave arcade (Romanesque) Definition: The series of arches supported by columns or piers that separate the nave from the side aisles in a Romanesque church. Flashcard #86 Term: Gallery (Romanesque) Definition: A second story built over the side aisles of a Romanesque church, opening onto the nave. Flashcard #87 Term: Westwork Definition: A monumental, multi-storied stone façade located at the western end of a Romanesque church, often featuring towers and multiple portals. Flashcard #88 Term: Tympanum Definition: The semicircular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance, door, or window, often filled with relief sculpture in Romanesque and Gothic architecture. Flashcard #89 Term: Lintel Definition: A horizontal architectural support spanning the top of a door or window opening, often sculpted in Romanesque portals. Flashcard #90 Term: Trumeau Definition: The central column or post supporting the lintel and tympanum of a large portal, often carved with a figure. Flashcard #91 Term: Jambs Definition: The side posts or vertical elements of a doorway or window frame, often adorned with sculpted figures in Romanesque and Gothic architecture. Flashcard #92 Term: Voussoirs Definition: Wedge-shaped stones that form an arch, found in Romanesque portals. Flashcard #93 Term: Historiated Capitals Definition: Sculpted capitals on columns or piers that depict narrative scenes, biblical stories, or fantastic beasts, common in Romanesque interiors. Flashcard #94 Term: Last Judgment Portal — Autun Cathedral Definition: A famous Romanesque tympanum sculpture at the Church of Saint-Lazare in Autun, France, depicting Christ in Majesty presiding over the Last Judgment, designed to inspire fear and moral instruction. Flashcard #95 Term: Christ in Majesty Definition: An iconic depiction of Christ enthroned within a mandorla, often flanked by the symbols of the four Evangelists, symbolizing his divine authority. Flashcard #96 Term: Evangelist symbols Definition: Representations of the four Evangelists: Matthew (man or angel), Mark (lion), Luke (ox), and John (eagle), often surrounding Christ in Majesty. Flashcard #97 Term: Charlemagne Definition: Frankish king crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE, who initiated the Carolingian Renaissance, reviving Roman art, architecture, and learning. Flashcard #98 Term: Carolingian Renaissance Definition: A period of intellectual, cultural, and artistic revival in the Carolingian Empire under Charlemagne, marked by a conscious effort to restore Roman imperial glory. Flashcard #99 Term: Coronation Gospels Definition: An example of Carolingian manuscript art known for its naturalistic figures, gold text on purple vellum, reflecting imperial power and Roman influence. Flashcard #100 Term: Palatine Chapel, Aachen Definition: Charlemagne's personal chapel, inspired by San Vitale, representing the first vaulted stone building north of the Alps since Rome and fusing Roman, Byzantine, and Christian symbolism. Flashcard #101 Term: Gothic Art & Architecture Definition: An architectural and artistic style (c. 1140–1400) originating in the Paris region, characterized by unprecedented height, abundant light, and a sense of dematerialization. Flashcard #102 Term: Abbot Suger Definition: The Abbot of Saint-Denis and advisor to French kings, credited with conceptually inventing Gothic architecture through his renovation of the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis. Flashcard #103 Term: Saint-Denis (Gothic) Definition: The burial church of French kings and the birthplace of Gothic architecture, renovated by Abbot Suger to embody his vision of Lux Nova and anagogy. Flashcard #104 Term: Pseudo-Dionysius Definition: A 6th-century Byzantine mystic whose Neoplatonic texts, mistakenly attributed to Saint Denis, profoundly influenced Abbot Suger's ideas about the symbolism of light in architecture. Flashcard #105 Term: Lux Nova Definition: 'New Light,' Abbot Suger’s key theological concept, referring to the divine, spiritual light that filled Gothic churches through stained glass, facilitating anagogical ascent. Flashcard #106 Term: Anagogy Definition: A spiritual ascent from the material to the immaterial, a key concept for Abbot Suger, who believed architecture could lift the soul toward God through physical beauty. Flashcard #107 Term: Pointed arch Definition: A key Gothic structural innovation that directs weight more vertically downwards than a round arch, allowing for taller structures and lighter walls. Flashcard #108 Term: Ribbed cross vault Definition: A Gothic vaulting technique where stone ribs form a skeletal framework, reducing the weight of the vault and allowing lighter materials to fill the spaces between. Flashcard #109 Term: Slender columns Definition: A Gothic innovation where massive Romanesque piers are replaced by more delicate columns, directing weight vertically and contributing to a sense of openness. Flashcard #110 Term: Flying buttresses Definition: Exterior skeletal supports, characteristic of Gothic architecture, that transfer the outward thrust of the nave vaults across the side aisles to piers, allowing for thinner walls and larger windows. Flashcard #111 Term: Tripartite Nave Elevation Definition: The three-story vertical division of the Gothic nave interior, consisting of the nave arcade, triforium, and clerestory. Flashcard #112 Term: Nave arcade Definition: The lowest level of the Gothic nave elevation, composed of a series of arches supported by columns or piers separating the nave from the side aisles. Flashcard #113 Term: Triforium Definition: The middle level of the Gothic nave elevation, often a narrow passageway or decorative arcade below the clerestory. Flashcard #114 Term: Clerestory Definition: The uppermost level of the Gothic nave elevation, featuring large stained-glass windows that flood the interior with light. Flashcard #115 Term: Chartres Cathedral Definition: A prominent High Gothic cathedral in France, largely rebuilt after a fire in 1194, known for its unified design, extensive stained glass (including rose and lancet windows), and preservation of the Virgin Mary's tunic. Flashcard #116 Term: Sainte-Chapelle Definition: A royal chapel in Paris, considered the ultimate realization of the Gothic Lux Nova concept, with walls almost entirely composed of stained glass, creating an overwhelming ethereal light. Flashcard #117 Term: 3rd–4th century CE Definition: Development of early Christian art. Flashcard #118 Term: 270 CE Definition: Date of the Santa Maria Antiqua sarcophagus. Flashcard #119 Term: 70 CE Definition: Destruction of the Jewish Temple by the Romans, leading to the split of Judaism and the emergence of Christianity. Flashcard #120 Term: 571–632 CE Definition: Life of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. Flashcard #121 Term: 622 CE Definition: The Hijra, when Muhammad fled Mecca to Medina, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Flashcard #122 Term: 687–692 CE Definition: Construction period of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Flashcard #123 Term: 5th century BCE Definition: Approximate time when Siddhartha Gautama founded Buddhism. Flashcard #124 Term: 250 BCE Definition: Approximate date of the Great Stupa at Sanchi, built by Emperor Ashoka. Flashcard #125 Term: c. 950–1050 CE Definition: The Ottonian Period in European art and architecture. Flashcard #126 Term: 476 CE Definition: Traditional date for the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. Flashcard #127 Term: c. 500–900 CE Definition: The Early Middle Ages. Flashcard #128 Term: c. 500–700 CE Definition: The Migration Period (formerly 'Dark Ages'). Flashcard #129 Term: 742 CE Definition: Birth of Charlemagne. Flashcard #130 Term: 800 CE Definition: Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Flashcard #131 Term: c. 1050–1200 CE Definition: The Romanesque Period. Flashcard #132 Term: 1096–1204 CE Definition: The period encompassing the Four Official Crusades. Flashcard #133 Term: c. 1070–1120 CE Definition: Construction period of the Church of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse. Flashcard #134 Term: c. 1140–1400 CE Definition: The period of Gothic Art & Architecture. Flashcard #135 Term: 1194 CE Definition: Date of the devastating fire at Chartres Cathedral, which led to its High Gothic rebuilding. Flashcard #136 Term: 532–537 CE Definition: Construction period of Hagia Sophia under Emperor Justinian. Flashcard #137 Term: 527–565 CE Definition: Reign of Emperor Justinian I. Flashcard #138 Term: 312–337 CE Definition: Reign of Emperor Constantine, during which Christianity was legalized

Western Roman Empire

The Latin-speaking half of the Roman Empire, centered in Rome.

Eastern Roman Empire

The Greek-speaking half of the Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, centered in Constantinople.

Catacombs

Underground burial chambers where early Christians worshipped privately due to persecution.

Appropriation

Using existing imagery or symbols in a new context, a common practice in early Christianity.

Orant figure

A standing figure with arms raised in prayer, derived from Roman gestures of duty.

Ichthys (fish)

A Christian symbol for Jesus Christ, Son of God.

Good Shepherd

A depiction of Jesus as a caring, protective, and pastoral caretaker, adapted from Roman pastoral scenes.

Cubicula

Mortuary chapels or rooms within catacombs used for small services.

Loculi

Shelves carved into catacomb walls for individual burials.

Wet plaster fresco (fresco buon)

A painting technique where pigment is applied to wet plaster.

Domus (community house)

Private homes converted for use as early Christian worship spaces.

Familia

A Roman core value emphasizing family loyalty.

Pietas

A Roman core value emphasizing duty to the state and gods.

Contra-posto

A naturalistic standing pose used in Roman art, where the body's weight is shifted to one leg.

Prefiguration

An Old Testament story or figure that foreshadows a New Testament event or figure.

Constantine

Roman Emperor (reigned 312–337 CE) who legalized Christianity and initiated widespread Christian architectural patronage.

Old St. Peter’s Basilica

An early Christian basilica built in Rome under Constantine over St. Peter’s tomb, serving as a pilgrimage site.

Basilican/Cross Plan

A Western church architectural plan characterized by a long nave, side aisles, transept forming a cross, and an apse.

Santa Sabina

A smaller, well-preserved example of a Western early Christian basilica in Rome.

Santa Costanza

Originally a royal mausoleum, later converted into a central-plan church, circular with a dome and ambulatory, showing Eastern influence in the West.

Atrium (Old St. Peter's)

The open courtyard leading into the narthex of Old St. Peter’s Basilica.

Narthex (Old St. Peter's)

The entrance hall or porch leading to the nave of Old St. Peter’s Basilica.

Nave (Old St. Peter's)

The central, main aisle of Old St. Peter's Basilica, accommodating the congregation.

Transept (Old St. Peter's)

The arm of the church that projects at right angles to the nave, forming the 'cross' in a cruciform plan, providing space for clergy.

Apse (Old St. Peter's)

A semicircular recession at the eastern end of the church, containing the altar.

Justinian I

Byzantine Emperor (527–565 CE) who expanded the empire, promoted Christianity, and commissioned major churches like Hagia Sophia and San Vitale.

Trinity

The Christian concept of God as Father, Son (Jesus), and Holy Spirit.

Nimubs

A halo around the head of a holy figure in art.

Mandorla

An almond-shaped aura surrounding the full-body depiction of Christ or other sacred figures, signifying divinity.

Icon

A religious image, often painted on wood, used in devotion, particularly in Eastern Christianity.

Iconoclasm

The deliberate destruction of religious images, notably during the Byzantine controversy of 726+ CE.

Dematerialization (Byzantine art)

An artistic and architectural goal in Byzantine art to create a divine space that transcends material reality, often achieved with light and shimmering mosaics.

Tesserae

Small pieces of glass, stone, or other material used to create a mosaic.

Hagia Sophia

Meaning 'Holy Wisdom,' a monumental Byzantine church in Istanbul built by Justinian (532–537 CE), known for synthesizing basilican and central plans with its massive dome.

Pendentives

Spherical triangular sections that transfer the weight of a circular dome to four piers or columns, allowing for a large, open space below.

San Vitale

An octagonal, central-plan Byzantine church in Ravenna, famous for its lavish mosaics depicting Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora.

Muhammad

The prophet of Islam (571–632 CE) who received revelations from Allah, forming the basis of the Qur’an.

Qur’an

The holy book of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God (Allah) revealed to Muhammad.

Calligraphy (Islam)

The art of beautiful writing, highly esteemed in Islamic culture as a manifestation of Allah's word.

Five Pillars of Islam

The fundamental practices of Islam: Shahada (faith), Salah (prayer), Sawm (fasting), Zakat (charity), Hajj (pilgrimage).

Geometric abstraction (Islamic art)

Complex patterns based on numbers and mathematics, developed in Islamic art due to the general avoidance of sentient figural imagery in religious contexts.

Tessellation

The repeating of geometric units to form an intricate pattern without gaps or overlaps, common in Islamic art to suggest eternity.

Symmetry (Islamic art)

The use of balanced proportions (e.g., fourfold, fivefold, sixfold) in geometric patterns to create visual harmony.

Masjid

An Arabic term meaning 'place of prostration,' referring to a mosque.

Minaret

A tall, slender tower, typically part of a mosque, from which the call to prayer (adhan) is issued.

Qibla wall

The wall in a mosque that faces the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca, which Muslims face during prayer.

Mihrab

A niche or recess in the qibla wall of a mosque, indicating the direction of prayer.

Dome of the Rock

Built 687–692 CE in Jerusalem, it is one of the earliest major Islamic monuments, an octagonal central-plan building sacred to Jews, Christians, and Muslims.

Horror vacui (Islamic art)

A design principle characterized by the filling of an entire surface with details and decoration, often seen in the Dome of the Rock's exterior.

Great Mosque of Córdoba

A significant example of Islamic architecture in Spain, featuring a massive hypostyle prayer hall with reused Roman columns and a distinctive double-arched system.

Siddhartha Gautama

The historical Buddha (5th century BCE) who founded Buddhism after renouncing luxury to seek an end to human suffering.

Four Noble Truths

The core teachings of Buddhism: 1. Life is suffering. 2. Suffering is caused by desire and ignorance. 3. Ending desire ends suffering. 4. The way to end suffering is to follow the Eightfold Path.

Eightfold Path

The Buddhist path to liberation from suffering, comprising right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Stupa

A hemispherical mound or reliquary housing Buddha's relics, symbolizing the cosmos (mandala), used as a pilgrimage site for circumambulation.

Circumambulation

The ritual act of walking around a sacred object, such as a stupa or shrine, in a clockwise direction as a form of devotion.

Toranas

Elaborately carved gateways at the entrances to a stupa, decorated with narrative scenes and symbolic representations of the Buddha.

Yakshi Figures

Female nature spirits associated with fertility, abundance, and life force, often shown in a sensuous tribhanga pose at stupa gateways.

Tribhanga pose

A triple-bent pose (at the neck, waist, and knee) often used in ancient Indian sculpture, especially for female figures like Yakshi.

Chaitya Halls

Rock-cut sanctuaries and congregation halls in Buddhist cave architecture, often containing stupa replicas, used for worship and by monks during monsoons.

Mudras

Symbolic hand gestures of the Buddha that convey specific meanings or states of mind in Buddhist iconography.

Mandala (Tibetan Buddhism)

A diagram of the universe, often intricately designed, used as a tool for meditation and ritual in Tibetan Buddhism.

Ottonian Period

A period in European art and architecture from c. 950–1050 CE, primarily in present-day Germany, marked by a continuation of Carolingian ideals and increased church building.

St. Michael’s, Hildesheim

A key Ottonian basilica plan church known for its double transept, strong symmetry, and wooden roof which posed a fire risk.

Codex

The modern book form, consisting of folded and bound pages, which replaced scrolls by the 5th–6th century CE and allowed for easier navigation of texts.

Migration Period

A period in Western Europe (c. 500–700 CE), formerly called the 'Dark Ages,' characterized by political decentralization, nomadic societies, and art primarily consisting of small, portable luxury objects.

Zoomorphic motifs

Stylized animal forms and designs, common in the metalwork and art of the Migration Period.

Cloisonné technique

An enameling technique where colored glass, enamel, or gemstones are separated by thin metal strips (cloisons) on a metal backing, seen in Migration Period jewelry.

Monasteries (Early Middle Ages)

Centers of learning, economic activity, and safe havens during the instability of the Early Middle Ages.

Illuminated Manuscripts

Hand-copied books, often religious texts, adorned with intricate decorations, illustrations, and ornamental initials by monks in scriptoria.

Vellum

A fine parchment made from calf or sheep skin, commonly used as pages for illuminated manuscripts.

Carpet pages

Purely decorative pages in illuminated manuscripts, often resembling textiles, used for meditation before reading the text (e.g., Lindisfarne Gospels).

Romanesque Period

An architectural and artistic style (c. 1050–1200 CE) meaning 'Roman-like,' characterized by a revival of large-scale stone construction, round arches, and barrel/groin vaults.

Crusades

A series of religious wars (1096–1204 CE) promoted by Pope Urban II, which led to increased East-West interaction and the recovery of ancient Roman knowledge in Western Europe.

Pilgrimage (Romanesque)

An act of devotion, healing, or penance involving travel to sacred sites like Santiago de Compostela, a driving force behind Romanesque church construction.

Relics

Body parts, clothing, or other objects associated with saints, believed to possess healing or miraculous powers, central to Romanesque pilgrimage.

Reliquaries

Elaborately crafted containers, often made of precious materials, designed to house and display relics.

Church of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse

An important Romanesque pilgrimage church (c. 1070–1120) known for its early stone vaulting and plan designed to accommodate large numbers of pilgrims.

Crossing square

The square space at the intersection of the nave and transept in a Romanesque church, which often served as the basic geometric unit for the church's proportions.

Ambulatory (Romanesque)

A walkway or aisle around the apse and altar of a Romanesque church, allowing pilgrims to circulate and visit radiating chapels without disturbing services.

Radiating chapels

Small chapels projecting outward from the ambulatory of a Romanesque church, designed to house relics.

Chevet (Romanesque)

The extended eastern end of a Romanesque church, comprising the apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels.

Barrel-vaulted nave

A long, continuous semicircular vaulted ceiling over the nave, characteristic of many Romanesque churches.

Transverse arches

Arches that span the nave at regular intervals, reinforcing the barrel vaulting and dividing the nave into bays.

Massive stone piers

Large, solid columns or supports used in Romanesque architecture to bear the heavy weight of stone vaults.

Nave arcade (Romanesque)

The series of arches supported by columns or piers that separate the nave from the side aisles in a Romanesque church.

Gallery (Romanesque)

A second story built over the side aisles of a Romanesque church, opening onto the nave.

Westwork

A monumental, multi-storied stone façade located at the western end of a Romanesque church, often featuring towers and multiple portals.

Tympanum

The semicircular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance, door, or window, often filled with relief sculpture in Romanesque and Gothic architecture.

Lintel

A horizontal architectural support spanning the top of a door or window opening, often sculpted in Romanesque portals.

Trumeau

The central column or post supporting the lintel and tympanum of a large portal, often carved with a figure.

Jambs

The side posts or vertical elements of a doorway or window frame, often adorned with sculpted figures in Romanesque and Gothic architecture.

Voussoirs

Wedge-shaped stones that form an arch, found in Romanesque portals.

Historiated Capitals

Sculpted capitals on columns or piers that depict narrative scenes, biblical stories, or fantastic beasts, common in Romanesque interiors.

Last Judgment Portal — Autun Cathedral

A famous Romanesque tympanum sculpture at the Church of Saint-Lazare in Autun, France, depicting Christ in Majesty presiding over the Last Judgment, designed to inspire fear and moral instruction.

Christ in Majesty

An iconic depiction of Christ enthroned within a mandorla, often flanked by the symbols of the four Evangelists, symbolizing his divine authority.

Evangelist symbols

Representations of the four Evangelists: Matthew (man or angel), Mark (lion), Luke (ox), and John (eagle), often surrounding Christ in Majesty.

Charlemagne

Frankish king crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE, who initiated the Carolingian Renaissance, reviving Roman art, architecture, and learning.

Carolingian Renaissance

A period of intellectual, cultural, and artistic revival in the Carolingian Empire under Charlemagne, marked by a conscious effort to restore Roman imperial glory.

Coronation Gospels

An example of Carolingian manuscript art known for its naturalistic figures, gold text on purple vellum, reflecting imperial power and Roman influence.

Palatine Chapel, Aachen

Charlemagne's personal chapel, inspired by San Vitale, representing the first vaulted stone building north of the Alps since Rome and fusing Roman, Byzantine, and Christian symbolism.