mgt 357 exam 2

what is triangulation

the process of answering our research questions using multiple sources of evidence or research strategies (practice that embodies concordant)

do bodies of evidence from practitioners, science, organizations, and stakeholders point in the same direction?

yes —> greater trust in one general conclusion, individual weaknesses of each source are unlikely to bias results, easier to form actionable recommendations

no —> less trust that there is one conclusion, less clear how to proceed

what is the iiv theory

more confidence and trust in the conclusion because all evidence points to one conclusion

what is the first question of the evidence practitioner investigation process

who counts, and who should we ask
ideally, practitioners have high levels of expertise

what is expertise

consistently perform better than average/others and produce real results, they also have skills and knowledge developed through training in a prolonged time in that specific domain

what is the second question in the investigation process

why use evidence from practitioners
starting to build an understanding of the problem itself (is there a problem, do practitioners agree with the problem)

what can be asked to start to develop ideas about the logic model (step 2 of investigation process)

what do practitioners see as the cause, do they have ideas for solutions, do practictioners agree about the presumed consequence

these questions can help identify key terms

what are the consideration and challenges of the evidence practitioner investigation process

illusion of explanatory depth

heuristics and biases

advice giving, construal level theory, and social distance

high validity vs low validity environments

what concepts are part of illusion of explanatory depth

people rely on other theories to explain and they think they can explain something more deeply than they actually can which can lead to misleading or misi`nformed theory and knowledge can be confused

what is a hidden mechanism

people underestimate the role of internal and unseen mechanisms

some mechanisms are easier to see and are easier to recall

what is a hierarchical structure

when someone understands something at a higher level, they may mistakenly believe they understand the lower levels

what are the questions with heuristics and cognitive biases

what are they, where do they come from, why do we have them, adn how do they affect evidence from practitioners

what are the two systems under dual process theory

system 1 - automatic pilot and system 2 - thinking

what does system 1 contain

reflective, gut level reaction, intuition, emotion, fast/automatic/parallel processing, domain specific (patterns/prototypes), independent of intelligence or memory capacity, based on experience/association

what do we mean by intuition

insight that arises spontaneously without conscious reasoning (system 1) and deliberation without attention

what does system 2 contain

higher order, slow conscious reasoning, domain general (rule based, abstract, logical), uniquely human and evolutionary young, developable through habits/ learning, sequential reasoning

what is the dark side of system 1

cognitive bias - it cuts down on a cognitive load to be fast/efficient and we use mental shortcuts called heuristics to make good enough decisions but can lead to bias

what is a prudence trap and how does it affect evidence

tendency to be overly cautious, especially with high stakes decisions and it can affect by being expensive or harmful

what is the recallability trap and how does it affect evidence

tendency to base predictions off of what is memorable and it can affect by distorting probabilities by overweighing memorable or dramatic events

what is a validity environment

refers to if thera re regular and consistent casual relationships

what is high validity environment

there are predictable and specificable cues in the environment that can be learnedwh

what is a low validity environment

limited predictable and specificable cues in the environment

when getting advice from practitioners are they directly involved or giving advice from afar

those are who are directly involved are paying attention to different things than those who are not involved

what is the construal level theory of psychological distance

people pay attention to different aspects of a situation depending on how close or far it is

what is advice giving

involves psychological distance between advice giver (practitioner) and reciver

what are the 3 distances for advice giving and what is the msot important one

physical distance

temporal distance

social distance - between self and another, differences in demographic, attitudes, personality

what is the result and association with advice giving

result —> tends to focus more on the most important attributes rather than the details context

associated —> an emphasis on positive features rather than negative ones

does this mean expert advice is useful/not helpful

no! we can improve our odds with research methodology and considerate asking

what are the 3 parts of practitioners views

1 - truth: attempt to gather this information a good description of what’s going on

2 - random error: may be misleading or confused by this info, random fluctuation in judgement that are not systematic

3 - consistent bias: tendency to consistently overestimate or underestimate, may be misleading by their information

what does asking a diverse group of practitioners or area of overlap(agreement) have the best estimate of

the best estimate of situation lack of overlap is random error/consistent, can also have shared consistent bias

what does asking a similar group of practitioners have the best estimate of

“truth” and shared bias cannot be disentangled because of area of overlap in their opinions is too large and gives false sense of accuracy

so who counts and who should we ask as a practitioner

it is impossible to ask all relevant practitioners so we need to take a sample (intentional # of people who provide data out of a larger population)

what representation is in who we should ask

practitioners represent the total population on important characteristics (of what you’re collecting aka target population) and different sources of consistent bias

what is the question for sample size calculator for quantitative analysis

how many people do we need to contact to find a defect in a certain effect

what is saturation

it’s used for quality analysis and it’s the point at which gathering data reveals no new insight

what can qualitative data be used for

exploration —> investigating something about which little is known and get ideas about missing link of the logic model

what can qualitative data be better for

thick descriptions (deeper details) investigate meanings, views about why, subjective views in greater detail

what are the unique characteristics of qualitative data

• research is the tool for analysis

• bricolage: construction of a mix of things (intentional)

  • analyzing, collecting, and interpreting data can happen interactively and organically

what are potential sources of qualitative data

• open ended survey responses

• existing text from practitioners (news articles, interviews by someone else)

• conducting your own interview with experts

what are the pros and cons of open ended surveys

pros —> lower cost for data, can be added on, easy collection with other data, and more data than interviews

cons —> no ability to ask follow up questions, responses can be short or lack detail, and harder to get organic data

what are existing texts pros and cons

pros —> low cost to generate data, lots of available data, data can be generated organically and more natural (analysis of expertise writing an important issues)

cons —> may not be about your research question, no ability to ask follow up questions/clarification

interviews pros and cons

pros —> open ended responses that permit thick, rich data to understand how/why, follow up questions allowed for clarification, depth, and extension of new ideas raised, higher rate of return (controls the rate or order of questions to ensure everything is answered)

cons —> collecting and analyzing the data can be time consuming, contextual influences (relationships) can affect the data in systematic way, lack of anonymity

what are the best practices for interviewing

what is a code

assigning a word or short phrase to a piece of datawh

what is a priori code

created before we start data analysis/texts and derived from previous stages of the analysis process, causes, or findings

what is an emergent code

new terms or ideas that emerge from the data along the way, not determined before analysis is started

wha is a memos

involves going deeper and allowing your thoughts to change as you analyze data

what is a note (i.e. memos)

these are made throughout the process to record views as analysis takes shapes

what is thematic analysis

used to identify trends in a text and summarize them in to themes

codes are organized into longer themas and serves as a foundation for other forms of qualitative research

what is content analysis

provides quantitative data of prevalence of a theme where specific incidents in the texts are counted and can be combined with other quantitative analyses

what is open coding

directly from the text and needs little interpretation

what is axial coding

abstract, interpretive, refined open codes where preliminary codes get grouped together under refined higher order categories

steps for thematic approach to analysis

1 priori coding 2 open coding 3 continued analysis using preliminary open codes 4 axial coding 5 presentation of findings

what is the science practice gap

gap between scientific study of management(studies of managerial problems) and management practice (seeking and strategizing to find solutions)

what is the cause of the science practice gap

information assignments (academics and practitioners have different education)

unique or different goals

knowledge transfer problems

how do we close the science practice gap

academic side (publish summaries of research and consult)

practitioner side (focus on science and work with them)

what is a research design

the blue print of a study and describes the whole process

observational research study

a study in which behavior is observed and recorded and can describe phenomena

observational study pros and cons

pros - identify something new, measure something behavioral

cons - cannot detect relationships, time consuming

cross sectional studies research design

a large number of data and variables are measured simultaneously and provides a snapshot of time

cross sectional studies research design pros and cons

pros - cost effective, potential relationship between variables, large samples

cons - cannot detect cause and affect

3 criteria sfor causality

1 - covariation (when x changes, y changes)

2 - other plausible alternatives ruled out (relation through common cause/suspicious correlation)

3 - temporality (change in x must come before change in y)

randomized experiment research design

participants are randomly assigned to one of 2+ groups, includes experiment and control group

randomized experiment research design pros and cons

pros - all 3 criteria for causality are met

cons - can lack realism

longitudinal studies research design

data taken from the same people over multiple points in time

longitudinal studies research design pros and cons

pros - assess temporal change (this + covariation criteria for causality met)

cons - cannot rule out alternative causes, costly

meta analysis research design

a study that summarizes many studies on the same topic (x + y)

meta analysis research design

meta analysis research design pros and cons

pros - huge cumulative sample size, limited influence on bias from one study

cons - garbage in, garbage out

which research design is besf for decision making

highest - meta analysis

high quality single - randomized experiment

medium - longitudinal

low quality single - cross sectional

what is statistical significance

it’s about estimating the likeliness that our results from a sample mirror a genuine pattern in a population

the value is p → percent change the result is a coincidence (higher is more coincidence and >0.05 is significant)

what is practical significance

it’s about how big an effect is so the effect size is a quantitative measure of the strength of a relationship between 2 variables

the value is r

what are the 3 things for effect size and meaning

correlation - strength of association between variables

regression - change in y based on a change in x

cohen’s d - mean differences between 2 groups

can science prove theories

no it can only support because that’s what evidence does

what is qualitative analysis

involves finding patterns in the data and making meaning of it

what are the valid and effective questions to ask

direct question - asking a specific/direct question that requires a short answer

indirect question - open questions to get a individual’s pov in their own words

structuring questions - guiding the interview and indicates a change in topic

follow up questions - asking to elaborate their answer

probing questions - following up what has been said through direct questioning

specifying question - going deeper into a response fro more info

interpreting question - asking follow ups to ensure understanding

what are the 3 parts of practitioner views

1 truth - attempt to gather information and get a good description of what’s going on

2 random error - can mislead or confuse with this info

3 consistent bias - tendency to over/under estimate and can be misleading

what is the delphi method

A qualitative method where experts anonymously respond to questionnaires, receive group feedback, and repeat the process.

what is selection bias

when your selection of practitioners leads to an outcome that is different from the one you would have expected from the target audience

what are the measures to avoid or reduce bias

consider multiple options, get evidence before forming an opinion, blind assessment, falsify views and judgements, seek disagreement, play devil’s advocate, and install a red team

what is methodological bias

wondering if our observation is derived from personal preference or prejudice

what are confounders

alternative factors that might account for the observed affect

what is the placebo effect

A change in outcomes that occurs because people expect or believe that an intervention will have an effect—rather than because of the intervention itself.

what is descriptive vs exploratory vs casual researc

• Descriptive: Describes what is happening

• Exploratory: Looks for ideas or patterns when little is known

• Causal: Tests cause-and-effect relationships

what is prospective vs retrospective research

• Prospective: Follows subjects forward in time

• Retrospective: Looks backward at past data

what is experimental vs observational research

• Experimental: Researcher manipulates variables to test outcomes

• Observational: Researcher only observes without changing anything

what is experimental vs correlational research

• Experimental: Shows cause and effect

• Correlational: Shows relationships, but not cause

what is cross sectional vs longitudinal research

• Cross-sectional: Data collected at one point in time

• Longitudinal: Data collected over a longer period of time

what is peer review

evaluation of scholarly research by field experts to ensure quality, validity, and originality before publication

what is methodological bias

systematic errors in research design, data collection, or analysis that produce distorted results