2 Charles I and the Civil Wars (1625-1649)

Charles’s views on monarchy were the main reason for political division in the years 1629 to 1649 – assess the validity of this view

• Personal rule to execution of charles I

• Something had to have happened to increase tensions so much that he gets executed (no suspicion in 1646/7 that it would ever happen)

Parliamentary opposition; his belief in the divine right

• He saw criticism as a direct attack on his authority

• refused compromise

• defended his prerogative rigidly, provoking opposition.

What was the significance of the 1629 Declaration of March?

• It marked the start of the Personal Rule and accused radical MPs of causing division, showing Charles's unwillingness to work with Parliament.

Why did he recall parl and what happened

• Bishops war

• rigid and defensive of his prerogative handling of the Short and Long Parliaments - inability to work cooperatively.

How did Charles’ political communication style contribute to division?

• didn't engage in political communication (1629-49) - failed to use the court through 1630s

• failed attempt to arrest five MPs in 1642 during the Five Members Coup.

How did Charles show reluctance to take advice from his own councils?

He ignored or dismissed advisors who tried to negotiate with Parliament, showing a rigid, isolated approach to ruling.

What were the heads of proposals 1647 and how did Charles I act

• A peace plan presented by Cromwell and the Army to settle the Civil War and reform government.

• He failed to agree to the terms, continuing to stall negotiations and showing he could not be trusted to compromise.

What was the engagement with the scots 1647 and why did it cause conflict

• A secret deal where Charles promised to impose Presbyterianism in England for three years in exchange for Scottish military support.

• It reignited the Civil War, destroyed trust in Charles, and pushed the country towards his trial and execution in 1649.

Religious factors; How did Charles’ support for Arminianism cause unrest?

• It alienated Puritans, who saw Laud’s reforms as a return to Catholicism

• due to emphasis on ceremonial practices, decorated churches ie stained glass windows ‘beauty of holiness’

What were some key examples of religious oppression under Charles?

• persecution of dissenters

• star chamber

• bishops more control

• strict enforcement of common book of prayer meant less freedom

What did this oppression lead to

• development of radical puritanism

• groups like the Providence Island Company providing a space for political resistance and questioning of Charles’ authority 

Other than radicalsim how else did they react

• great emigration to new england 1930s

How did religious conflict in Scotland impact Charles?

• emerged due to his introduction of English prayer book

• led to Bishops’ Wars

• this drained resources and forced Charles to recall Parliament.

How did the Irish Rebellion of 1641 worsen tensions and what was it due to

• fears of a Catholic uprising in Ireland

• Charles being seen as complicit or unable to manage the crisis.

Financial policies; Why did Charles face opposition for his financial methods?

• Bypassed parl which traditionally controlled taxation

• 1629 dissolved parl and ruled without it, relying on controversial methods to raise funds.

• Ship money and forced loans.

What was the political impact of Ship Money?

• It angered the gentry, who felt targeted and excluded from financial discussions.

How did the Bishops’ Wars affect his financial position?

• Bishops’ Wars (1639–1640)

• bankrupted Charles, forcing him to call the Short and Long Parliaments in 1640 to request funds.

why was there also social discontent

• Broader economic grievances, exacerbated by poor harvests and inflation

• created a climate of unrest that fueled political division.

To what extent was Charles I’s character and views the main reason for his failures as king in the years 1625 to 1646?

• Ruled at a time of financial strain, religious division and rising parl ambition, he made these problems way worse due to his character and outdated beliefs 

• Other rulers also believed in divine right of kings but they still showed compromise

• His character and views were undoubtedly to blame

Character and views

• Not suited to be a monarch; inferiority complex, reserved nature, speech impediment and a long shadow cast by his confident father James I

• As a result, he developed an obsessive belief in the divine right of kings which made him view any kind of dissent as something personal 

• From 1625 he refused to explain or justify any of his policies to parl - inability to communicate effectively meaning tensions escalated quickly

• Seen during his refusal to engage with PN at York House Conference in 1626 - address issues of policy and governance but was a clear failure.

• Relied on unpopular figures like Buckingham + dissolved parl rather than allow the impeachment of his favourite

• Personal rule lasted 11 years (1629-40) where he suspended parl entirely and ruled by prerogative. 

• Handling on the long and short parls highlighted his inability to work cooperatively

• Grand Remonstrance of 1641 which accused Charles of abusing his power, and called for major reforms. He rejected this and refused to compromise, which escalated tensions even further.

• His attempt to arrest the five members (including John Pym) in 1642 destroyed any remaining trust with parl, also showed they were no longer under his control 

• Had a rigid mindset and failed to adapt to a changing political landscape leading to the civil war and undermining the monarchy

Religion

• 1625 he promoted the arminian cleric montagu in defiance of parls demands for his impeachment 

• His later promotion of laud marked a turning point as charles fully aligned himself with laudianism - deeply unpopular with the largely calvinist PN

• The laudian reforms introduced throughout the 1630s provoked deep unrest with lots of changes happening to the church

• To many these changes looked like a shift towards catholicism, especially considering henrietta maria his wife (who was catholic)

• Opposition seen from puritans and moderate protestants as they felt alienated and alarmed - was worsened by the kings refusal to justify

• His attempt to introduce the english prayer book in scotland 1637 sparked the bishops war and led to charles having to recall parl after personal rule

• His attempts at trying to impose uniformity worsened any existing tensions

Finance

• At start of his reign he had little money but needed funds for expensive military campaigns, especially the failed expeditions to spain and france

• Parl was willing to give him money but they wanted a say in policy, particularly after the poor leadership of Buckingham - charles refused

• 1629 after parl criticised his financial and religious policies through the three resolutions, he dissolved parl and began his personal rule

• raised finance through unpopular fiscal policies, particularly ship money nitially effective but later become a symbol of his abusing his powers

• Also used monopolies etc, also deepened tensions with parl as he was attempting to govern without consent - more interested in prerogative

• Legal challenge by John Hampden 1637 demonstrated widespread resistance  

• When the bishop's war broke out 1639-40 he was forced to call parl for money to continue fighting.

• Short Parl of 1640 was dissolved immediately when it refused unconditional subsidies, and the Long Parl took full advantage of the king’s weakness.

• Shows his inability to manage parl and his poor financial management that he let it get this bad

‘The personalities of the early Stuart monarchs were responsible for a breakdown in relations between Crown and Parliament in the years 1604 to 1629.’

Assess the validity of this view.

• not sole cause but important

Personality - James I

• James had a strong belief in the divine right of kings, however ruled more pragmatically. This could be seen by his 1610 speech where he recognised the importance of cooperation between king and parl 

• However, he occasionally had outbursts of anger and arrogance, seen in his reaction towards the debate of the union in 1606 (union of england and scotland) or the protestation of 1621 - these created tensions

• James’ flexibility often allowed him to diffuse crisis before reaching breaking point

Personality - Charles I

• Charles I was much more rigid and uncompromising. He had an inferiority complex and had a firm belief in the divine right and saw any opposition as a direct challenge to his authority - this could be seen by his 11 years personal rule which damaged all relations

• Had a preference for closed court gov and had poor communication with parl which was exemplified in his 1626 speech, worsening tensions

• Also refused to compromise in political debated and turned small disagreements into fundamental constitutional disputes eg petition of right

Finance - James I

• James’ rule was characterised by growing  financial difficulties, largely due to the outdated elizabethan revenue system and the increasing costs of the gov but also due to his personal extravagance like his lavish spending on court and his favourites 

• Great contract 1610; parl offered a regular income in exchange for the abolition of certain feudal dues, collapsed largely because James was unwilling to give up royal prerogative. 

• However, James still took part in negotiations which must be noted

Finance - Charles I

• Charles i faced costly foreign wars against spain and france 

• However, he refused to work with parl and sought other methods of raising revenue, notably through the forced loan of 1626-27 which bypassed parl consent entirely and was deeply resented and when he imprisoned those who refused to pay this further worsened tensions as he was seen as really overstepping his power 

Favourites - James I

• James’ favouritism towards Robert Carr and George Villiers provoked widespread resentment

• Carr; corrupted and involved in the overbury scandal damaging the courts reputation

• Buckingham; his rapid rise and dominance over James alianted many MPs, particularly in the 1621 and 24 parls 

• However, still showed willingness to allow parl to investigate monopolists in 1621

Favourites - Charles

• Buckingham; Charles relationship with him was even more politically damaging 

• Despite the widespread criticism of B handling of foreign policy particularly the disastrous 1623 madrid trip and the failed cadiz expedition in 1625 charles remained loyal to him 

• Parls attempts to impeach B in 1626 were met with royal fury, and charles dissolved parl to protect him which further alienated MP’s 

• Buckingham became a symbol of all that was wrong with Charles’ government, and his assassination in 1628, while celebrated by many, only deepened Charles’ personal mistrust of Parliament. 

• After his death, Charles retreated even further into autocratic rule (personal rule 1629), therefore his mishandling of favourites worsened relations, but it was really his refusal to compromise or reform that turned discontent into outright hostility.

Religion - James I

• James, though personally Protestant, sought a degree of religious moderation.

• His broad church policy, exemplified by the hampton court conference 1604, managed to contain religious dissent to some extent - prevented any major conflict

Religion - Charles I

• Charles promotion of arminianism (form of protestantism viewed with deep suspicion by puritans) caused deep unrest 

• Supported figures such as Montagu and Laud which suggested to many MPs that he had catholic sympathies + was married to henrietta maria who was also catholic

• These fuelled fears of a popish plot to undermine english protestantism and were also tied to fears of absolutism 

• He refused to modify his religious policy in the face of growing opposition showing his rigidness and overconfidence in himself 

• Parl was also now changing; many MPs became more radical due to the failures of Charles’ reign 

• Petition of right 1628; high point of parl influence over crown

• While his religious view exacerbated tensions the rise of a more confident parl was also crucial

How significant were religious divisions to political instability in the years 1640 to 1660?

• The period from 1640 to 1660 in England was one of profound political instability, marked by civil war, regicide, the failure of successive governments, and ultimately the collapse of the republic and return of the monarchy.

• Religion played the main role but conflict also worsened by other factors too

Religious divisions

• One of the most consistent sources of tension and instability across the entire period

• Political polarisation in early 1940s led to civil war which can be linked to growing dissatisfaction of puritans with Charles I’s religious policy 

• Lauds reforms with their emphasis on ceremony and hierarchy linked with catholicism

• This fear of popery radicalised many parliamentarians and fed into their wider suspicions of his intentions particularly after the irish rebellion in 1641 (major uprising by irish catholics - goal was to regain land and power)

• The irish rebellion was framed by resorts of catholic atrocities and intensified the anti catholic sentiment 

• Civil war broke out in 1642 highlighting the religious divide (parl dominated by puritans and nonconformists, while anglicans and others supported crown)

• 1646-49 charles unwilling to agree to demands for the imposition of presbyterianism; english parl and scottish covenanters unhappy 

• Led to the engagement with the scots 1647 where he agreed to impose a presbyterian church if the scots would invade england to help restore him, leading to the second civil war 1648

• NMA dominated by radicals who rejected any settlement that would limit toleration

• Head of proposals 1647; NMA presented to king but he refused to accept as main focus was religious toleration which would alienate political presbyterians and scottish covenanters

• Eventually led to the trial and execution of the king in 1649

Political conflict

• Disputes stemmed from his 11 years personal rule 1629-40; abused his prerogative power and introduced controversial taxes like ship money

• Arguments of who should have political power 1646; groups like the levellers and diggers wanted social and political change (more allowed to vote, land shared equally)

• They challenged the authority of parl and the army leading to disagreements within the gov during both rump parl and protectorate

• Seen by Putney debates 1647 where NMA and political radicals argued about how england should be run

• Despite attempts at a more settled structure under cromwell there were disagreements between military (radical) and civilian Cromwellians (moderate, traditional) centred on the political direction of settlement and came to head in the kingship crisis 1657 (cromwell offered the crown) - he refused showing how unstable politics were

• By 1660 the restoration was welcomed due to exhaustion with repeated tensions

Military factors

• Many of the NMA were influenced by puritan and millenarian beliefs

• Their actions were key in leading to the pride's purge 1648 (MPs loyal to Charles I were removed forcibly from the long parl), the trial of Charles and the establishment of the commonwealth 

• Instability due to parl wanting a national presbyterian church

• NMA went against this and intervened in parl with the pride's purge and expelled the rump parl in 1653 - army saw themselves as acting in the name of a godly reformation

• Military also still involved during the protectorate; cromwell used major generals 1655-57 to enforce strict rules based on religious beliefs = public started to mistrust the army's power, making the gov less legitimate 

• After cromwell's death, the quaker movement became more active, this sparked the elite wanting to restore the monarchy, particularly as cromwell couldn't control the army or run the country properly

How far was the growth of political and religious radicalism in the years 1640 to 1660 due to the breakdown of authority in State and Church?

• Before the civil war the king, church of england and parl had tight control, but then this was destabilised

• Despite attempts being made to restore control ie blasphemy act 1650 there was no legitimate authority to back this up - Cromwell left them to do as they pleased

• Key figures reinforced these ideologies, not just the breakdown of authorities 

• Eventually suppressed in the early 1650s, showing how radicalisms survival relied upon instability

Levellers

• The Levellers were a predominantly London-based pressure group that sought political, economic and social reform during a period of immense uncertainty 

• A key figure was john lilburne

• During a time of economic and political distress due to the civil war, they proposed radical reforms such as universal male suffrage, biennial parls and legal equality, also advocated for sovereignty to reside with the people rather than a monarch or elite parl

• The collapse of church courts and royal censorship allowed for the spread of these idea through pamphlets, newspapers and public petitions 

• The Putney debates of 1647 exemplify this opening of political discourse; the army council considered their proposals, something unimaginable under a monarch

• However, their ultimate failure and their suppression in 1649 following the arrest of leaders and the army mutiny showed the limits of radicalism due to figures like cromwell

• This rise wouldn't have been possible without the breakdown of traditional authority

Puritans

• Religious radicalism also flourished in this period, largely due to the breakdown of the COE’s authority 

• Before 1940 the church had enforced orthodoxy through the episcopal hierarchy and church courts

• Now the bishops had been abolished and censorship replaced after 1941, allowing puritan sects that had previously been suppressed to preach, publish and gather followers openly 

• This growth was also seen in the NMA which further contributed to the radicalisation of both religion and politics 

• Millenarianism - a core belief among many puritans that christs second coming was imminent became more mainstream during the 1940s

• This was in part due to the collapse of the old world order, which was confirmed by the regicide of 1949 (execution of Charles I)

• However, this was not the only reason puritanism flourished; the NMA contributed significantly with radical officers promoting it, the army not only protected but sometimes promoted radicalism even when figures like cromwell tried to suppress it

• Also individuals such as James Nayler

Ranters, Quakers and fifth monarchists 

• These were the most extreme religious radical groups, emerged in the later stages of the interregnum between 1649-60 as the authority of the rump parl and later the protectorate failed to command widespread legitimacy - thrived off of instability

• Ranters; directly challenged both church doctrine and civil authority 

• Quakers; under george fox rejected the clergy and formal church services, focusing on personal revelations and silent worship

• Fifth monarchists; led by Thomas Harrison, were the most politically dangerous and they believed they were living in the end times. They were directly involved in uprisings in 1653, 1657. Their emergence directly tied to the failure to provide a stable gov after regicide

• These groups wouldn’t have gained traction if an effective central church and legitimate monarchy in place to suppress them 

• However also relied on millenarian theology and charismatic leaders